Essentials of Engineering Hydraulics

Essentials of Engineering Hydraulics
JONAS M. K. DAKE
B.Se (Eng.) (London); M.Sc.Teeh. (Man.); Se.D.(M.LT.)
Contents
Foreword to the First Edition
Preface to the Second (Metric) Edition
Preface to the First Edition
List of Principal Symbols
PART ONE ELEMENTARY FLUID MECHANICS

1. Fundamental concepts of fluid mechanics
   1.1 Introduction 3
   1.2 The Continuum 3
   1.3 Units of Measurement 4
   1.4 Some Important Fluid Properties 8
   1.5 Transfer Phenomena 13
   1.6 Types of Flow 18
   1.7 Boundary Layer Concepts and Drag 20
   1.8 Fluids in Static Equilibrium 25
   2 Methods of analysis
   2.1 Control Volume Concepts 40
   2.2 The Basic Physical Laws of Mass, Energy and Momentum
   Transport 41
   2.3 Conservation of Mass 42
   2.4 The Linear Momentum Principle 45
   2.5 The Principle of Conservation of Energy: First Law of
   Thermodynamics 52
   2.6 The Moment of Momentum Concept 60
   3 Steady incompressible flow through pipes
   3.1 Introduction 63
   3.2 Enclosed Flow at a Low Reynolds Number 64
   3.3 Momentum and Energy Correction Factors 70
   3.4 Pipe Flow at a High Reynolds Number 71
   3.5 Analysis of Pipe Systems 87vi Contents
   4 Flow in non-erodible open channels
   401 Introduction 95
   402 Momentum Concepts 107
   403 Energy Concepts 113
   404 Gradually Varied Flow 123
   405 Open Channel Surges 133
   406 Miscellaneous Information 137
   5 Experimental fluid mechanics
   501 Introduction 142
   502 Dynamic Similarity 143
   503 Physical Significance of Modelling Laws 146
   504 Models of Rivers and Channels 160
   505 Dimensional Approach to Experimental Analysis 165
   6 Water pumps and turbines
   601 Introduction 173
   602 The Pelton Wheel Turbine 175
   603 Reaction Machines 178
   604 Selection and Installation of Pumps and Turbines 190
   605 Cavitation 196
   606 Pumping from Wells 205
   PART TWO SPECIALIZED TOPICS IN CIVIL
   ENGINEERING
   7 Flow in erodible open channels
   701 Properties of Sediments 213
   702 Mechanics of Sediment Transport 219
   703 Design of Stable Alluvial Channels 229
   704 Moveable Bed Models 236
   8 Physical hydrology and water storage
   801 Introduction 242
   802 Precipitation 244
   803 Evaporation and Transpiration 249
   804 Infiltration 252
   805 Surface Run-off (Overland Flow) 254
   806 Stream Run-off 258
   807 Storage and Streamflow Routeing 266
   808 Design Criteria 276Contents vii
   9 Groundwater and seepage
   9.1 Introduction 282
   9.2 Fundamentals of Groundwater Hydraulics 285
   9.3 Some Practical Groundwater Flow Problems 298
   10 Sea waves and coastal engineering
   10.1 Introduction 312
   10.2 Wave Generation and Propagation 315
   10.3 Small Amplitude Wave Theory 319
   10.4 Finite Amplitude Waves 326
   10.5 Changes in Shallow Water 327
   10.6 Wave Reflection and Diffraction 331
   10.7 Coastal Processes 334
   10.8 Coastal Enginee ring 340
   11 Fundamental economics of water resources
   development
   11.1 Introduction 346
   11.2 Basic Economic and Technological Concepts (Decision
   Theory) 349
   Problems
   Appendix: Notes on Flow Measurement
   A.l Velocity-Area Methods 401
   A.2 Direct Discharge Methods 40
   list of Principal Symbols
   Bb CCGCp
   C.R.F.
   C
   v
   C
   Co
   Cd
   Cf
   c.s.
   c.v.
   ev E F
   F’
   f
   J:
   g
   go
   cross-section area of a jet (L 2)
   area (L 2)
   acceleration (L/t 2 ) , area (L 2), wave amplitude (L)
   amplitude of wave beat envelope (L)
   top width of a channel (L)
   bottom width of a channel (L)
   I
   Chezy coefficient (L2/t); wave velocity (L /t)
   group velocity (waves) (L/t)
   specific heat at constant pressure (L 2 /Tt 2 )
   Capital Recovery Factor
   specific heat at constant volume (L 2 /Tt 2 )
   concentration of mass, surge wave speed (L/t) , speed of sound (L/t)
   coefficient of drag
   coefficient of discharge
   coefficient of drag (friction)
   control surface
   control volume
   coefficient of velocity
   molecular mass conductivity (M/Lt), pipe diameter (L), drag (ML/t 2 )
   sieve diameter which pass N% of soil sample (L)
   median sand particle size (L)
   geometric mean size (sand) (L), depth (L), drawdown (L)
   geometric mean size (sand) (L)
   diameter of a nozzle (L)
   energy (ML2/t2 ) , specific energy (L), Euler number, rate of evaporation (L/t);
   wave energy (M/t 2 ) , modulus of elasticity (M/Lt 2 )
   rate of transmission of wave energy (ML/t 3)
   thermal eddy diffusivity (L 2/t)
   mass edd y diffusivity (L2/t)
   kinetic energy (ML2 /t2 )
   potential energy (ML2/t2 )
   exponential constant (= 2.71828)
   vapour pressure (mmHg), void ratio
   force (ML/t 2 ) , Froude number, fetch (L)
   densimetric Froude number
   friction factor
   infiltration capacity (L/t or L3/t)
   silt factor
   acceleration due to gravity (L/t 2 )
   constant – 32.174 Ibm/slug
   enthalpy (L 2/t2), total head (L), wave height (L)
   head developed or consumed by a rotodynamic machine (L)
   pum p head (L)
   theoretical head of a rotodynamic machine (L)
   xiiixiv List of Principal Symbols
   n, static lift (L)
   H
   sv net positive suction head (NPSH) (L)
   HT turbine head (L)
   h head of water above spillway crest (L), hydraulic head (L)
   hf friction head loss (L)
   I moment 0 f inertia (ML”), infiltration amount (L 3), rate of interest
   seepage (hydraulic) gradient (LIL)
   i
   o rainfall intensity (Lit)
   J mechanical equivalent of heat, (ML”It 2 )
   K thermal molecular conductivity (MLITt 3 ) , coefficient of hydraulic resistances,
   modulus of compressibility (MILt”)
   K
   n nozzle (loss) coefficient
   Kr
   coefficient of wave refraction
   k coefficient of permeability (superficial) (Lit); wave number (21TIL)
   ks
   size of roughness (L)
   L length (L), wavelength (L)
   L o wavelength in deep water (L)
   1 length (L)
   Ibm pound mass (M)
   lbf pound force (MLlt”)
   M mass (M), Mach number
   MB marginal benefit
   Me marginal cost
   MP marginal productivity
   MRS marginal rate of substitution
   MRT marginal rate of transformation
   m mass (M), mass rate of flow (Mit), hydraulic mean depth or radius (L)
   N speed of rotation (rev/min)
   Ns
   specific speed (turbines)
   Nu unit speed (rotodynamic machines)
   n porosity, ratio of wave group velocity to phase velocity (CalC)
   n s specific speed (pumps)
   o outflow (L 3It)
   l5 average outflow (L 3 It)
   OMR operation, maintenance and repairs
   P force (MLlt”) , wetted perimeter (L), power (ML”lt 3 ) , principal investment,
   precipitation (rainfall)
   Pu
   unit power
   p pressure (MILt”)
   ppm parts per million
   Pat atmospheric pressure (MILt”)
   P
   v vapour pressure (MILt 2 )
   Q discharge rate (L 31t) , heat (ML 2It 2 )
   Qu unit discharge
   q discharge per unit width (L”It)
   q velocity vector (Lit)
   lib rate of bed load transport per unit width (L2 It)
   qs rate of suspended load transport per unit widthS
   Sf
   SF
   SF
   S
   o
   s,
   uu
   list of Principal Symbols
   universal gas constant (L21t2 T), Reynolds number, rainfall amount (L 3)
   Reynolds number based on shear velocity (v’d/v)
   Richardson number
   degrees Rankine
   radius (L), (suffix) ratio of model quantity/prototype quantity
   specific gravity, storage (L 3 ) , degree of saturation, storage constant
   slope of energy grade line (LIL)
   shape factor (sand grains)
   flow net shape factor
   bed slope (LIL)
   specific gravity of solids
   temperature (1), wave period (t), torque (ML 2/t2), transmissibility (L 2/t)
   time (t), wind duration (t)
   time of concentration (t)
   recurrence interval (t)
   duration of rainfall (t)
   internal energy (ML 2It 2 ) , wind speed (Lit)
   specific internal energy (L 2It 2 )
   xv
   Y
   Yc
   Yn
   Yo
   y
   Y’
   6.Z or z;
   ~
   am
   {3
   ‘Y
   ‘Ys
   6e
   €s
   8
   volume (L 3)
   volume of voids (L3)
   velocity (Lit)
   time average velocity (turbulent flow) (Lit) (sections 1.5.4,4.1.3,7.2.3);
   sectional average velocity (sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4.1, 3.4.2)
   radial (flow) component of velocity in a rotodynamic machine (Lit)
   velocity of nozzle jet (Lit)
   seepage velocity (ch, 9) (Lit)
   shear velocity V(To/ p) (Lit)
   absolute surge wave speed (Lit), rotodynamic whirl component of velocity (Lit)
   weight (MLlt 2 ) , Weber number, work (ML 2It2 )
   work against pressure (ML 21t2 )
   work against shear (ML 21t2 )
   shaft work (ML 2It2 )
   settling velocity (sand particles) (Lit)
   distance measured from wall (L)
   critical depth (L)
   uniform (normal) depth (L)
   depth (generally) in an open channel (L)
   centroid of section measured from water surface (L)
   centre of pressure measured from water surface (L)
   height of weir (L)
   summation of
   approaches (equivalent or equal to)
   thermal molecular diffusivity (L2It), angle
   mass molecular diffusivity (L2It)
   angle, constant of proportionality in es =(3e
   specific (unit) weight (MIL2t2 )
   specific weight of solid matter (MIL2t 2 )
   boundary layer thickness (L)
   eddy kinematic viscosity (L2It)
   eddy diffusity for suspended load (L 2It)
   angle, temperature (1)xvi
   11
   11h
   11m
   J..L
   v P
   Ps
   (J
   a
   c
   ag
   “
   Tc
   “0
   worn
   t;
   list of Principal Symbols
   efficiency, small amplitude wave form (L)
   hydraulic efficiency
   mechanical efficiency
   dynamic molecular viscosity (MILt), discharge factor
   kinema tic molecular viscosity (L 2 It)
   density (MIL3)
   density of solid matter (MIL3)
   surface tension (Mlt 2 ) , standard deviation, wave number (2n/T)
   critical cavitation number
   geometric standard deviation
   shear stress (MILt 2 )
   critical shear stress (MILt 2 )
   wall shear stress (MILt 2 )
   angular velocity (rad/t)
   Cauchy number
   x
   Absolute pressure 48
   Acceleration 5, 143
   convectional 143
   gravitational 5
   local 143
   Air lift pumps 208
   Airy-Stoke’s equations 319, 326
   Akosombo dam 346
   Alluvial channels 96, 213, 219, 229
   Alternate depths 115
   Amplitude (waves) 319, 323
   Angular momentum 60, 181
   Anisotropic porous media 291
   Annular space flow 67
   Aquifers 283
   artesian 285
   coastal 313
   confined 283, 303
   unconfined 283,297,304
   yield 285
   Archimedes principle 34
   Backwater curves 96, 124
   Base flow 261
   Beach material 314, 337
   Bearing (journal) 69
   Beat (wave) 324
   Bedload 223,237,314
   Bends, loss in 48, 78
   reducing 48
   Benefits/costs ratio 352
   Bernoulli equation 55
   Blasius’ 1/7th power law 22
   Blench’s regime equations 232
   Body force 8,45,47,49, 144
   Borda’s mouth piece 77
   Bore (hydraulic) 96, 133
   Boundary layer 20,63
   laminar sublayer 97
   Bourdon gauge 28
   Branching pipes 91
   Breakwaters 341
   Buckingham 1T-theorem 169
   Bulk modulus of elasticity 155
   Buoyancy, centre of 36, 38
   Buoyant weight 215
   California pipe method 407
   Canals 96
   Capillary waves 156
   Capillary zone 283
   Capital recovery factor 349
   Cauchy number 155
   Cavitation 132, 155, 157, 196
   Centre of pressure 31, 32
   Centrifugal acceleration 197
   Centrifugal pumps 174
   Centroid 35
   Channels (see open-channel flow)
   economic sections 102
   geometry 96, 106
   roughness 96, 100
   Chemical gauging 408
   Chezy formula 100, 124, 364
   Chutes 96
   Cnoidal waves 326
   Coefficient of: contraction 77
   discharge 59, 120, 170, 172,405
   drag 23,167
   hydraulic resistance 77, 78
   permeability 287
   run off 259
   velocity 78, 172,402
   Colebrook-White formula 149
   Compressibility 155
   Compressible flow 20, 44, 46, 155
   dynamic similitude 155, 158
   Concentration, mass 15
   sediment 227
   time of 25″5
   Conductivity, mass 15
   thermal 16
   Conduits 19,65, 95
   non-prismatic 63
   Conjugate depths 112
   Conservation of: energy 41, 52
   mass 41,42
   momentum (angular) 60
   momentum (linear) 42, 45
   Consumptive use 249
   Continuity equation 44
   differential forms 45
   Continuum 3, 14
   Contraction, abrupt 77
   coefficient of 77
   vena contracta 49, 76
   Control (flood) 96, 273, 352
   Control section (point) 110, 118, 132
   Control surface 42
   Control volume 40
   differential c.v. 40
   fmite c.v, 41, 107
   Convectional acceleration 143
   Convectional precipitation 246
   Correlation (regression) analysis 263
   Couette flow 68
   Critical depth 109, 114
   Critical slope 126
   Culverts 96, 105
   Current meter 402
   Currents (wave) 335
   Curved surfaces 32
   Curves, classification of 126
   Cyclones 246
   Cylinder, drag 23
   pressure distribution 24Index 413
   Dall tube 405
   Dalton’s law 250
   Darcy’s law (seepage) 286, 290
   Darcy-Weisbach formula 73, 148, 164
   Dash pot (shock absorber) 68
   Deep water waves 317, 325
   Densimetric Froude number 157, 222
   Density, definition 6, 8
   Diffraction (waves) 332
   Diffusion (diffusivity)
   Fick’s law 16
   mass 16
   molecular 13, 15
   sediment 227
   thermal (heat) 16
   turbulent (eddy) 13, 17
   Dimensional analysis 165
   Buckingham 1r-theorem 169
   Rayleigh method 166
   Dimensionless equations of motion 145
   Dimensionless groups (numbers) 154
   Direct runoff 258
   Discharge coefficient 59,120,170,172,405
   Distorted models 161
   Draft tube 195
   Drag 20,215
   coefficient of 23, 167
   Newton’s law of 159, 167, 215
   Stoke’s law of 215
   Drag, form 20, 23, 64, 74, 237
   skin frictional 20, 64, 237
   Draw down curves 126
   Ducts 55,64, 95
   Dunes (anti-dunes) 220
   Dynamic eddy viscosity 17
   molecularviscosity 7,10,12,15,
   143
   Dynamic pressure 147
   Dynamic similarity (similitude) 143, 155,
   158,186
   Economic efficiency 348, 352
   Economic sections (channels) 102
   Eddies 64, 110
   Eddy viscosity 17, 97
   Efficiency, economic 348, 352
   pump 86, 177, 183
   technical (technological) 349
   turbine 86, 177, 183
   Effluent streams 283
   Efflux, definition 41
   Elbow 48,78
   Embankments (seepage through) 298, 311
   Enclosed systems, similarity laws 147
   Energy, conservation of 41,52, 113
   First law of thermodynamics 52
   internal 6, 52
   kinetic 52,56, 76
   potential 52, 56
   pressure 56
   stored (inherent) 52
   total head 56, 113
   transient 52
   transport of 15,41,52
   Energy correction factor 70, 107, 114
   Energy equation, general 53
   one-dimensional 55
   open channels 113, 116
   Energy grade line 56, 123
   Energy losses 64; 110
   bends 78
   elbows 78
   minor 80
   pipes 56, 72, 148
   sudden contraction 76
   sudden expansion 64, 74, 76
   valves 78
   Enthalpy 55,58
   Entrance length (flow establishment) 63
   Entry losses 77
   Equations of motion (Navier-Stokes) 143
   Equipotentials 291
   Erosion 106
   Estuary 156
   Euler number 155
   Euler’s equation 183
   Evaporation 106,249
   Evapo-transpiration 251
   Exceedence interval 280
   Exit (rejected) kinetic energy 76
   Expansion, sudden (abrupt) 76
   Fall velocity 215
   Fast flow 109, 116, 121
   Feasibility (technological) 350
   Fetch (wind) 316
   Fick’s law 16
   Finite amplitude waves 326, 327
   First law of thermodynamics 41, 53
   Flanges (pipe) 46
   Flat plate boundary layer and drag 21
   Floating bodies 36
   Floats 403
   Flood control 96, 273, 352
   Flood frequencies 277
   Flow meters 401
   Flownet 291
   boundary conditions 292
   Laplace’s equation 291
   Fluid, compressible 44, 146
   definition of 3
   homogeneous 44
   ideal 18, 20, 23
   incompressible 44, 46
   Newtonian 9, 12, 15
   real 18,20, 23
   viscous 9, 14, 20, 23
   Flume 96,405
   Flux, energy 15
   heat 16
   mass 17,42
   moment of momentum 60
   momentum 14, 15,46
   Foot valve 195
   Force: body 8,45,47,49,145
   buoyant 34, 37
   external 42, 143
   of a stream 108
   surface 8,45,47,49, 145
   surface tensional 156
   units of 6, 26414 Index
   Form (pressure) drag 20, 23, 64, 74, 237
   Fourier’s law 16
   Francis turbine 174, 178, 192
   Free surface (line of seepage) 294, 311
   Free-surface flow 95,213
   dynamic similarity (similitude) 152,
   236
   open channels (see chapters 4 and 7)
   weirs 119
   Friction factors (resistance coefficients)
   22,73,149
   open channels 97, 100, 149, 162,
   224,230,234
   pipes 73, 149
   Frictionless flow, Bernoulli equation 55
   Froude number 110, 145, 152, 167, 315
   densimetric 157, 222
   Fully developed flow (pipes) 63
   Fully developed waves 316
   Gas, constant 7
   definition of 3
   Gas law 57
   Gauge pressure 46
   Gauss’ theorem 45
   Geometric mean size 214
   Geometric similarity 143
   Grade line, energy 56, 123
   hydraulic 56, 66, 73
   piezometric 56, 66, 73
   Gradient, energy 123
   hydraulic 66, 73
   potential 13
   Gradually varied flow 123
   Gravity, centre of 36
   Gravity models 152
   Gravity waves 118,135, chapter 10
   Groundwater 259,282
   Groynes 344
   Guide vanes (rotodynamic machines) 181
   Gumbel’s theory 279
   Hagan-Poiseuille equation 67, 287
   Hardy Cross method of balancing heads
   88
   Hazen-William-s formula 89,202
   Head, definition of 56
   piezometric 56, 287
   total 56, 401
   Head (energy) loss, coefficients 78
   Hazen-Williams formula 89
   Heat (energy) 16,52
   specific heats 7, 17
   transfer 16
   Height (wave) 317
   Homogeneous liquids 44,290
   media 290, 296
   Hydraulic bore 96, 135
   Hydraulic (piezometric) grade line 56,66,
   87,91
   Hydraulic gradient 66, 73
   Hydraulic jump 96,110,116,137
   Hydraulic mean depth (radius) 73, 100
   et seq.
   Hydraulic performance of channels 102
   Hydrograph 256,258
   unit hydrograph 260
   Hydrologic cycle 242
   Hydrology, physical 244
   stochastic 244
   systems 244, 261, 287
   Hydrometer 35
   Hydrostatic force 30
   Hydrostatic pressure distribution 49, 147
   Hydrostatics 26-38
   Impact of jets 175
   Incompressible (fluid) flow 20, 44, 46
   through pipes 63 et seq.
   Inertia, force 143
   moment of 62
   Infiltration 252, 256
   Influent streams 283
   Influx 41
   Inherent (stored) energy 52
   Internal energy 6, 52
   specific internal energy 6
   Interval, exceedence 280
   recurrence 277, 280
   Isohyets 247
   Jet, impact of 175
   Jet pumps 208
   Joints (mitred) 78
   Jump, hydraulic 96, 110, 116, 137
   Kaplan turbine 174, 178, 191
   Karman, mixing length hypothesis 231
   universal constant 98
   Kelvin (temperature) 4
   Keta sea erosion 300, 344
   Kinematic eddy viscosity 17
   Kinematic molecular viscosity 10, 12
   Kinematic similarity 143
   Kinetic energy 52, 56
   correction factor 70
   Laminar flow 14, 15,64,65, 74, 149
   circular pipes 64
   Couette flow 68, 70
   definition of 13, 19
   Hagan-Poiseuille equation 67
   laminar sublayer 97
   parallel plates 67
   Laplace’s equation 291
   flownet solution 292
   Length (wave) 322
   Line of seepage 294, 312
   Littoral drift 338
   Loop (pipe network) 87
   Mach number 20, 155
   Manning formula 101, 114, 164
   Manning’s roughness factor 101
   Manometer 28
   Marginal production 355
   Marginal rate of substitution 353
   Marginal rate of transformation 353, 355
   Marine structures 341Index 415
   Mass 4
   concentration of 15
   conservation of 41,42
   units of measurements 4, 5, 6
   Masscurve 266
   Mass transport (transfer) 15,41,42
   Measurements, units of 4
   flow 401
   Mechanical efficiency 183
   Metacentre 38
   Metacentric height 38
   Mixed flow machines 174
   Mixing length hypotheses 98, 231
   Models (hydraulic) 142, 236
   verification of 161, 236
   Modulus of elasticity 7
   compressibility 155
   Molecular diffusivity 15
   Molecular viscosity 7, 10, 12, 15, 143
   Moment, first 31
   second 31
   Moment of inertia 62
   Moment of momentum 60
   rotodynamic machines 181
   Momentum (linear), correction factor 70,
   107
   flux 14,15,46
   open channels 107
   transfer 13, 16,41
   Moody diagram 75, 150
   Motion, equation of 143
   Moveable beds 213
   models 164, 236
   Multipurpose water resources 347, 350
   Muskingum routeing equation 273
   Nappe 406
   Navier-Stokes equations 143-
   Net benefit function 351
   Net positive suction head 197
   Newton (unit of force) 4, 7
   Newtonian fluids 9, 12, 15, 148
   Newton’s drag equation 159, 167, 215
   Newton’s law of viscosity 9, 15, 18
   Newton’s second law of motion 5,14,
   41,45,60,143,154
   Niger river 220, 224
   Nikuradse 74, 149
   Non-uniform flow, definition 19, 96
   Normal (uniform) depth 124
   Normal stress (pressure) 8
   No-slip condition 14, 66, 67
   Nozzle 46
   losses 77
   Pelton wheel turbine 175
   power transmission 81
   Offshore wind 315
   One-dimensional flow, definitions 41, 64,
   108
   Onshore wind 315
   Open-channel flow (see also free-surface
   flow) 63, 95 et seq., 213 et seq.
   alluvial channel design 229
   channel transitions 118
   classification 96
   classification of curves 126
   distorted models 161
   gradually varied flow 123
   hydraulic bore 96
   hydraulic jump 96,110,116,137
   models 152, 236
   non-uniform flow 96
   prismatic channels 96, 100, 109
   roughness effects 100,108,161
   sediment transport 234
   specific energy 113
   surges 133
   uniform flow 96
   Orbital motion (waves) 323
   Orifice plate meter 405
   Orographic (relief) precipitation 246
   Parallel pipes 83
   pumps in 194
   Parallel plates 67
   Parshall flume 405
   Pelton-wheel turbine 175
   Period (waves) 316, 319
   Permeability (see also porous media) 96,
   106,283
   coefficient of 287
   determination of 303
   Phreatic surface 282, 284
   Piezometer 28
   Piezometric head 56,91,282
   surface 33, 282, 284, 287
   Pipe losses 72, 149
   Pipes, incompressible flow 55, 63 et seq.
   in parallel 83
   in series 79
   Pipe systems 86
   branching 91
   loops 87
   network 87
   ring mains 87
   Pitching 38
   Pitot-static tube 401
   PNJ wave forecasting 317
   Poiseuille (Hagan-Poiseuille) equation 67,287
   Porosity 285
   Porous media 282
   aquifers 284, 297, 303
   Darcy’s law 286,290
   discharge from wells 302
   Dupuit’s approximations 297
   flownet 291
   non-homogeneous 295
   permeability 283
   porosity 285
   void ratio 288
   Positive displacement pumps 173, 205
   Potential energy 52, 56
   Potential gradient 14
   head 56
   velocity potential 291
   Power 55
   Prandtl, mixing length theory 98
   Precipitation 244
   averaging methods 247416 Index
   Pressure, absolute 48
   atmospheric 48
   centre of measurement 31, 32
   coefficient of ISS
   definition of 6
   dynamic 147
   gauge 46
   hydrostatic 48, 147
   static 402
   vapour ISS
   Pressure (form) drag 20,23,64, 74, 237
   Pressure energy 56
   Pressure (pipe) flow 63, 95
   Pressure gradients, adverse 64
   favourable 76
   Pressure under wave 322, 395
   Pressure work 53
   Priming (pumps) 195
   Probability concepts 277
   Production function 350
   Pumps 85, 173 et seq.
   axial flow 174, 178
   cavitation 196
   centrifugal 174
   classification of 174
   efficiency 86, 177, 183
   Euler’s equation 183
   head 183
   in a pipe line 85
   installation 192
   mixed flow 174
   performance 181
   radial flow 174, 178
   reciprocating 173, 205
   selection of 189
   shaft work 85
   similitude 183
   specific speed 188
   turbine pumps 206
   Radioactive isotope method 409
   Rainfall 244
   Rain gauge 247
   Rankine (temperature) 6
   Reciprocating machines 173,205
   Recurrence interval 276, 279
   Reflection of waves 331
   Refraction of waves. 330
   Regime concepts 230
   Rejected (exit) kinetic energy 76
   Relief precipitation 246
   Resistance (see drag, friction factor,
   energy loss)
   Reynolds number 63,69, 71, 145, 154,
   167,222
   critical 65
   definition of 145
   dynamic similarity (similitude) 143
   limits (pipe flow) 65
   pipe friction 73, 149
   porous media (validity of Darcy’s
   law) 287
   Rheological diagram 12
   Richardson number 157
   Right of way 136
   Ripples 219
   Rivers 96, 219,403
   gauging 99, 403
   models of 160,236
   Rolling (of vessels) 37
   Rotodynamic machines 83,173
   efficiency of 86, 177, 183
   Roughness 96, 100
   Chezy 100
   Manning’s 101
   relative 74, 149
   Reynolds number 149,232
   sand grain 149,214
   Roughness scales 161
   Routeing (flood) 273
   Routeing (in river channels) 273
   Runner blades 181, 184
   Runoff, coefficient of 259
   direct 258
   overland 254
   stream 258
   Saline wedge 156
   Salinity effects (sediment) 213
   Salinity intrusion 313
   Saltation 314
   Salt-velocity method 404
   Salvage value 349
   Sand grain roughness 149, 214
   Scaling laws (models) 142
   Schmidt equation 227
   Sea walls 342
   Sediments 106,213
   bedload 223,237
   fall velocity 215
   mechanics of transport 219
   properties 213
   size 213
   standard deviation 214
   suspended load 223,225,237
   wash load 213,237
   Seepage face 294, 311
   Seepage gradient 287, 292, 295
   Seepage through dams 311
   Seepage velocity 286
   Sekondi sea defense 342, 343
   Separation 74
   Series, pipes in 79
   pumps in 193
   Shaft torque 60,177,182
   work 61, 177, 182
   Shallow water waves 320, 327
   Shear, definition 8, 10
   Shear suess 8,9,15,20,64,97,100
   Shear velocity 99,222
   Shear work 53
   Shields diagram 222
   Shock absorber 68
   Shock waves, open channel 121
   Sills 131, 139
   Similarity 143
   dynamic 143
   geometric 143
   kinematic 143
   Slow flow 109, 115, 120Sluice gate 49,59, 116
   Small amplitude wave 319
   5MB wave forecasting 317
   Solitary wave 326
   Sound wave, speed of 155
   Specific energy 113
   Specific heats 7, 16, 245
   Specific speed 188
   Specific storage 308-9
   Specific weight 7, 8
   Spillways, models 152
   outlet works 138
   Spreading (flow) in stilling basins 138
   Standing waves 332
   Static lift (pumps) 190, 192
   Static pressure 402
   Steady flow, defmition 19
   in pipes 44
   Stilling basins 131, 137
   Stokes’ drag law 215
   Storage (reservoirs) 269
   constant 309
   rou teing 273
   Stored (inherent) energy 52
   Stratified flow models 156
   pumping 313
   Stratified fluid system 157
   Streams, effluent 283
   influent 283
   Streamlines 56, 291
   Stress, normal (pressure) 8, 143
   tangential (shear) 8, 143
   Strickler formula 234
   Subcritical flow 109, 115,120
   Submerged surfaces 30-35
   Supercritical flow 109, 115, 120
   Surface detention 254
   Surface forces 8,45,47,49, 144
   Surface retention 254
   Surface tension 7, 13, 156
   Surges, open channel 96, 118, 133
   Suspended load 219,237,314
   Systems hydrology 244,261, 263
   Tangential stress 8, 143
   Technical efficiency 349
   Temperature 6, 7
   Theis analysis 308
   Thermal conductivity 16
   Thermal diffusivity 16
   Thermodynamics, first law of 41, 53
   Thiessen method 248
   Thoma cavitation number 155, 197
   Threshold velocity 219, 223
   Time of concentration 255
   Torque (external) 60
   lawn sprinkler 60
   rotodynamic machine runner 176,
   181
   Total head tube 402
   Tractive force 233
   Transfer phenomena 13
   energy 16
   mass 15
   momentum 14, 16
   Index
   Transmissibility 309
   Trochoidal wave 326, 327
   Turbine pumps 206
   Turbines 83, 85, 173 et seq.
   cavitation 196
   classification 174
   draft tube 195
   efficrency 86,177,183
   Euler’s equation 183
   Francis 174, 178, 192
   head 183
   impulse 175
   installation 195
   Kaplan 174,178,191
   Pelton-wheel 175
   performance 181
   selection 189
   shaft torque 177, 182
   similitude 186
   specific speed 188
   Turbo machines 173
   Turbulent diffusion 14, 18
   Turbulent flow 18,63, 71, 97, 149
   laminar sublayer 97
   Underground flow 259,282
   Uniform flow, definition 19
   in conduits 96
   in open channels 96, 100, 124
   Unit discharge 188
   Unit hydrograph 260
   Unit power 188
   Unit speed 188
   Units 4
   S.1. 4,6, 7
   Unsteady flow 19, 133, 143
   through pipes 80
   Upthrust 34
   U-tube 28
   Valves, energy losses 78
   throttle 93
   Vapour pressure 155, 193, 197
   Velocity, coefficient of 78, 172,402
   critical 110, 114
   fall 215
   seepage 286
   superficial 286
   terminal 215
   vector 43
   wave 319
   Velocity defect law 99
   Velocity distribution, laminar flow in
   pipes 65,71
   open channel 97
   turbulent flow in pipes 71
   universal law 98
   Velocity gradients and shear 9
   Velocity potential 291
   Vena contracta 49, 76
   Venturi flume 119, 405
   Venturi meter 41,404
   Viscosity, definition of 3, 9
   dynamic 7,10,12,15,143
   kinematic 7, 10, 12, 15, 17, 97
   417418
   V-notch 167,406
   Volta project 347
   Wall resistance 55
   Wash load 213, 237
   Water resources 347
   multipurpose 348, 351
   Waves,amplitude 319
   beat 324
   breaking 328
   deep water (short) 317, 325
   diffraction 332
   energy 324
   finite amplitude 326, 327
   forecasting 317
   generation 315
   height 316
   length 322
   orbital motion 323
   period 316, 319, 327
   propagation 315
   reflection 331
   Index
   refraction 330
   shallow water (long) 322, 329
   small amplitude 319
   velocity 118, 319
   Wave transformation 327
   Weber number 156
   Weight 8.
   Weir, broad-crested 119, 407
   sharp-crested 167,406
   Well, discharge 306
   pumping from 206
   Wetted perimeter 100 et seq.
   Wind resistance 98, 315
   Work 52
   forms of 53
   Yield (aquifer) 285
   Zone of aeration 282
   Zone of capillarity 283
   Zone of saturation 282

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