Welding Processes Handbook

Welding Processes Handbook
Second Edition
Klas Weman
Contents
Preface ix
1 Introduction to welding . 1
The history of welding 1
Terminology 7
References and further reading .12
2 Gas welding . 13
Introduction .13
Equipment .13
Gas flames .16
Welding techniques .17
Applications 17
References and further reading .18
3 Basics of electricity in welding 19
Introduction .19
Basic electrical concepts .19
Components in electrical circuits 22
Measuring welding data 27
4 Arc welding: an overview 31
Introduction .31
Arc physics 31
Drop transfer 37
Magnetic arc blow .40
Shielding gases 43
Standardisation of shielding gases 44
Standards for wires and rods .47
References and further reading .50
5 Power sources for arc welding . 51
Introduction .51
Electrical characteristics and their control in welding 51
Different types of welding power units .54
Controlling power sources 57
Rating data for power sources .59
Safety requirements .62
References and further reading .62
6 TIG welding . 63
Introduction .63
Equipment .63CONTENTS
vi
Consumables .68
Quality issues 69
References and further reading .69
7 Plasma welding 71
Introduction .71
Classification of plasma welding methods .72
Equipment .73
Gases for plasma welding .74
References and further reading .74
8 MIG/MAG welding .75
Introduction .75
Equipment .76
Consumables .82
MIG/MAG welding process variations .85
Quality issues in MIG/MAG welding .94
References and further reading .97
9 Manual metal arc (MMA) welding with coated
electrodes 99
Introduction .99
Equipment .99
Consumables: electrodes .100
Quality issues 102
References and further reading .103
10 Submerged arc welding .105
Introduction .105
Equipment .106
Consumables .110
Process knowledge 112
Quality issues: weld defects 115
References and further reading .117
11 Pressure welding methods 119
Introduction .119
Resistance welding 119
Friction welding 126
High-frequency welding and induction welding .128
Ultrasonic welding 129
Explosion welding 129
Magnetic pulse welding 130
Cold pressure welding .131
Diffusion welding .131
References and further reading .132
12 Other methods of welding .133
Introduction .133CONTENTS
vii
Electroslag welding .133
Electrogas welding 134
Stud welding .134
Laser welding 136
Electron beam welding 139
Thermite welding 141
References and further reading .142
13 Cutting methods .143
Introduction .143
Thermal cutting .143
Water jet cutting 148
Thermal gouging .148
References and further reading .149
14 Surface cladding and hardfacing methods 151
Introduction .151
Types of wear 151
Thermal spraying 153
References and further reading .156
15 Mechanisation and robot welding 157
Introduction .157
Quality issues in mechanised welding 157
Mechanised TIG welding 158
Narrow-gap welding .160
Arc welding using robots 161
References and further reading .166
16 Soldering and brazing 167
Introduction .167
Soldering .168
Brazing 170
17 The welding environment and welding safety .175
Introduction .175
Welding fumes and gases 175
Electrical hazards 177
Arc radiation .179
Ergonomics .180
Fire risks 182
References and further reading .184
18 Welding residual stress and distortion .185
Introduction .185
Residual stress .185
Distortion 186
Reducing welding residual stress and distortion .188
References and further reading .189CONTENTS
viii
19 The weldability of steel 191
Introduction .191
Carbon steels .191
High-strength steels 195
Stainless steels 196
References and further reading .206
20 Welding of aluminium 207
Introduction .207
Designation system for aluminium and filler materials 207
Weldability 210
Suitable methods of welding aluminium 213
Filler materials 214
Strength after welding 215
Quality issues in aluminium welding 218
References and further reading .220
21 Design of welded components .221
Introduction .221
Symbolic representation of welds on drawings 221
Welding classes .224
Design considerations .225
Strength considerations of welded joints 234
Analysis of statically loaded welded joints .235
Welded structures subjected to fatigue loads 238
References and further reading .242
22 Quality assurance and quality management .245
Introduction .245
Quality requirements for welding (EN ISO 3834) 246
Welding coordination (EN ISO 14731) 247
Specification and qualification of welding procedures .249
Qualification test of welders (EN 287-1) 255
Non-destructive testing .257
References and further reading .258
23 Welding costs .259
Introduction .259
Some welding cost concepts .259
Cost calculation .262
Mechanisation, automation, robot welding .265
24 Index .267ix
Index
A
AC MIG welding 88
Acetylene 14
Acid electrodes 101
After-treatment 220
Alternating current 19
Aluminium 94, 207
Arc brazing 173
Arc length control 160
Arc physics 31
Arc spot welding 90
Arc spraying 155
Arc time 261
Arc welding 3
Argon 43
Austenitic steels 198
B
Backfire 14
Backhand technique 93
Basic electrical concepts 19
Basic electrodes 101
Bending loads 228
Braze welding 172
Brazing 170
C
Capacitance 23
Capacitor 22
Carbon arc gouging 149
Carbon dioxide 44
Carbon steel 191
Centre of torsion 229
Cladding 137, 139
Clamping force 123
Cleaning 219
CO2 44
CO2 laser 137
Cold pressure welding 131
Cold wire 109
Compressive loads 228
Consumable guide 134
Cooling unit 81
Cored wires 82
Corrosion 218, 230
Crack initiation 239
Crack propagation 239
Crater filling 97
Craters 96
Creep start 94
Current 91, 114
Cutting methods 143
D
DeLong diagram 197
Deposition efficiency 260
Deposition rate 9, 34, 259
Design for production 231
Detonation spraying 156
Diffusion welding 131
Dimensioning of welds 223
Diod 25
Diode laser 138
Discontinuities 218
Distortion 12
Drop transfer 37
Duplex steels 204
Duty cycle 60
Dynamic properties 51
E
Efficiency 60
Electrical safety 59
Electrode area 123
Electrode diameter 91
Electrode extension 92, 109
Electrodes 100
Electrogas welding 134
Electron beam welding 5, 139
Electroslag welding 133
Enclosure class 60
Energy cost 263
Explosion welding 129
F
Ferritic steels 202
Ferritic-austenitic steels 204
field-effect transistor 27
Filler materials 209
Filler wires 110
Final failure 239
Fire risks 62
Flame gouging 149
Flame spraying 154
Flash welding 125WELDING PROCESSES HANDBOOK
268
Flashback arrester 14, 15
Flux 111, 174
Flux-cored arc welding 84
Forehand technique 93
Forehand welding 17, 114
Friction stir welding 127, 213
Friction welding 126
FSW 213
Fume 36
Fusion welding 9
G
Gas flames 16
Gas flow rate 93
Gas pre-flow 94
Gas welding 13
Globular transfer 86
GMAW 75
Grinding 239
GTAW 63
H
Hardfacing 151
HAZ 193
Heat Affected Zone 10, 193
Heat input 9
Heat-Affected Zone 216
Helium 44, 68
HF generator 74
High efficiency electrodes 101
High frequency welding 128
High productivity MIG/MAG 89
High-strength steel 195
High-velocity flame spraying 154
Hold time 123
Hot cracks 116
Hot start 95
Hot wire 110, 159
Hot-dip galvanizing 241
HVOF 154
Hybrid welding 139
Hydrogen 44
Hydrogen cracks 115
I
Inductance 24, 92
Induction welding 128
Inductor 23
Insulation class 60
Intergranular corrosion 200
Inverter 56
Iron-carbon diagram 192
ISO 2553 221
ISO 5817 224
J
Joint position 93
Joint preparation 94, 112
Joint tracking 165
Joint types 10, 213
K
Keyhole 34
Keyhole welding 73, 136
Kirchhoff’s laws 22
L
Labour cost 262
Lack of fusion 96
Laser beam brazing 173
Laser cutting 146
Laser welding 5, 136
M
Machine cost 262
MAG 4, 75
Magnetic arc blow 40
Magnetic forces 37
Magnetic pulse welding 130
Manual Metal Arc 99
Martensitic steels 203
Martensitic-austenitic steels 205
Measurement 27
Mechanisation 157, 265
Mechanised TIG 158
Metal-cored arc welding 84
Microalloyed steel 192
MIG 75
MIG brazing 173
MIG/MAG welding 4, 75
MMA-welding 99
Monitoring 158
N
Narrow-gap 160
Natural frequency oscillation 240
Nitrogen 44, 68, 145INDEX
269
O
Ohms law 20
Operator factor 261
Oxy-fuel cutting 143
Oxygen 14, 44
P
Parallel connection 21
Penetration 34
Perlite 192
Pinholes 116
Plasma arc brazing 173
Plasma arc gouging 149
Plasma cutting 144
Plasma spraying 155
Plasma welding 71
Polarity 35, 113
Poor penetration 103
Pores 95, 96, 116
Post weld treatment 96
Power 20
Power factor 60
Power source 54, 66, 80, 99, 106
Pressure welding 9, 119
Projection welding 124
Pulsed MIG 86
R
Rating plate 59
Rectifier 25
Reference lines 222
Reference numbers 7
Resistance 20
Resistance butt welding 125
Resistance welding 119
RMS value 20
Root 10
Root gas 95
Rutile electrodes 101
S
Schaeffler diagram 197
Seam welding 124
Self-regulation 52
Series connection 21
Setting-up time 261
Sheer loads 228
Shielding gas 43, 68, 74, 92
Short-arc 39
Slag inclusions 103, 117
Soldering 167
Solidification cracks 117
Spot welding 121
Spray arc 40, 85
Square wave AC 66
Squeeze time 123
Stainless steel 196
Standard 60
Static characteristics 51
Stress corrosion 201
Stud welding 134
Submerged arc welding 3, 105
Surface cladding 151
Surface tension 38
Surfacing 9
Sustained backfire 15
T
Tandem wire 89, 108
Tensile loads 228
Terminology 7
The buoyancy effect 35
Thermal cutting 143
Thermal gouging 148
Thermal pulsing 67, 87
Thermal spraying 153
Thermite welding 141
Throat thickness 10, 235
Thyristor 26
TIG brazing 173
TIG dressing 239
TIG welding 4, 63
Tolerance box 91
Tool steels 202
Torch position 93
Torsional loads 229
Transformer 24
Transistor 26
TTS diagram 201
Tungsten electrode 65
Twin arc 89, 109
U
Ultrasonic welding 129
Undercutting 117
V
Voltage 91, 114WELDING PROCESSES HANDBOOK
270
W
Water jet cutting 148
Weld defects 115, 179
Weld deformation 218
Weld face 10
Weld quality 99
Weld toe 10
Weldability 210
Welding classes 224
Welding costs 259
Welding defects 219
Welding environment 175
Welding instructions 221
Welding methods 8
Welding positions 11
Welding rectifier 55
Welding speed 92, 113
Welding symbols 221
Welding time 123
Welding transformer 55
Wire feed speed 91
Wire feed unit 76
Wire stick-out 36
Working point 91
WPS 9
Y
YAG-laser 138

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