Physics Demystified

Physics Demystified
Stain Gibilisco
CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
PART ZERO A Review of Mathematics
CHAPTER 1 Equations, Formulas, and Vectors 3
Notation 3
One-Variable First-Order Equations 9
One-Variable Second-Order Equations 12
One-Variable Higher-Order Equations 18
Vector Arithmetic 20
Some Laws for Vectors 23
CHAPTER 2 Scientific Notation 29
Subscripts and Superscripts 29
Power-of-10 Notation 31
Rules for Use 35
Approximation, Error, and Precedence 40
Significant Figures 44
CHAPTER 3 Graphing Schemes 49
Rectangular Coordinates 49
The Polar Plane 62
Other Systems 64
CHAPTER 4 Basics of Geometry 77
Fundamental Rules 77
Triangles 86
Quadrilaterals 92
For more information about this book, click here.viii CONTENTS
Circles and Ellipses 101
Surface Area and Volume 103
CHAPTER 5 Logarithms, Exponentials,
and Trigonometry 113
Logarithms 113
Trigonometric Functions 124
Trigonometric Identities 127
Test: Part Zero 133
PART ONE Classical Physics
CHAPTER 6 Units and Constants 147
Systems of Units 147
Base Units in SI 148
Other Units 154
Prefix Multipliers 158
Constants 160
Unit Conversions 165
CHAPTER 7 Mass, Force, and Motion 171
Mass 171
Force 175
Displacement 176
Speed 178
Velocity 181
Acceleration 183
Newton’s Laws of Motion 188
CHAPTER 8 Momentum, Work, Energy, and Power 193
Momentum 193Collisions 196
Work 202
Energy 204
Power 209
CHAPTER 9 Particles of Matter 217
Early Theories 217
The Nucleus 219
Outside the Nucleus 227
Energy from Matter 230
Compounds 234
CHAPTER 10 Basic States of Matter 241
The Solid Phase 242
The Liquid Phase 251
The Gaseous Phase 258
CHAPTER 11 Temperature, Pressure, and
Changes of State 265
What Is Heat? 265
Temperature 269
Some Effects of Temperature 275
Temperature and States of Matter 278
Test: Part One 285
PART TWO Electricity, Magnetism,
and Electronics
CHAPTER 12 Direct Current 297
What Does Electricity Do? 297
Electrical Diagrams 303
CONTENTS ixVoltage/Current/Resistance Circuits 305
How Resistances Combine 310
Kirchhoff’s Laws 318
CHAPTER 13 Alternating Current 323
Definition of Alternating Current 323
Waveforms 325
Fractions of a Cycle 329
Amplitude 332
Phase Angle 336
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism 345
Geomagnetism 345
Magnetic Force 347
Magnetic Field Strength 351
Electromagnets 354
Magnetic Materials 357
Magnetic Machines 361
Magnetic Data Storage 366
CHAPTER 15 More About Alternating Current 371
Inductance 371
Inductive Reactance 375
Capacitance 380
Capacitive Reactance 384
RLC Impedance 390
CHAPTER 16 Semiconductors 397
The Diode 397
The Bipolar Transistor 405
Current Amplification 410
The Field-Effect Transistor 412
Voltage Amplification 414
x CONTENTSCONTENTS xi
The MOSFET 417
Integrated Circuits 421
Test: Part Two 425
PART THREE Waves, Particles,
Space, and Time
CHAPTER 17 Wave Phenomena 437
Intangible Waves 438
Fundamental Properties 440
Wave Interaction 448
Wave Mysteries 455
Particle or Wave? 459
CHAPTER 18 Forms of Radiation 467
EM Fields 467
ELF Fields 472
Rf Waves 474
Beyond the Radio Spectrum 481
Radioactivity 490
CHAPTER 19 Optics 499
Behavior of Light 499
Lenses and Mirrors 507
Refracting Telescopes 512
Reflecting Telescopes 515
Telescope Specifications 517
The Compound Microscope 521
CHAPTER 20 Relativity Theory 529
Simultaneity 529Time Dilation 534
Spatial Distortion 539
Mass Distortion 541
General Relativity 544
Test: Part Three 557
Final Exam 567
Answers to Quiz, Test, and
Exam Questions 585
Suggested Additional References 593
Index 595
xii CONTENTSabscissa, 49
absolute error, 42
absolute field of view, 519–521
absolute time, 531
achromatic lens, 515
acceleration, 183–187
addition, 3–4, 36
alpha particle, 490
alternate exterior angles, 83–84
alternate interior angles, 83–84
alternating current, 323–395
alternative power-of-10 notation, 31
ampere, 152
ampere-turn, 352
amplitude, 332–336, 443
average, 332–333
dc component of, 335–336
instantaneous, 332
peak, 333, 336
peak-to-peak, 333–336
root-mean-square (rms), 335
angle addition and subtraction, 82
angle-angle-angle, 89–90
angle bisection, 80
angle notation, 79
angle-side-angle, 88–89
angular degree, 154–155
angular frequency, 331
antimatter, 231–234
antineutron, 231
antiparticle, 231
antiproton, 231
apparent field of view, 513
area:
of rectangle, 5–6
of triangle, 6
atomic mass, 225–226
atomic mass unit (amu), 225–226
atomic number, 221
auroral propagation, 478–479
avalanche, 400
average amplitude, 332–333
INDEX
base units, 148–153
becquerel, 494
beta particle, 490
bias, 399, 408
bipolar transistor, 405–412
bisection, of angle, 80
boiling, 280–281
British thermal unit (Btu), 268–269
brittleness, 243–244
calorie, 266–267
candela, 152–153
capacitance, 380–390
capacitive reactance, 384–390
capacitors:
in parallel, 383–384
in series, 382–383
carbon dating, 496
cartesian plane, 20, 49–50
cartesian three-space, 22, 67–68
cassegrain reflector, 516–517
celestial coordinates, 66
celestial latitude, 66
celestial longitude, 66
Celsius scale, 270–271, 274
centigrade scale, 270–271, 274
cgs system, 148
chemical reaction, 235
chromatic aberration:
in microscope, 526
in telescope, 514
circle:
equation of, 58–59, 63–64
interior area of, 102
perimeter of, 102
coefficient, 3
collisions, 196–202
complex number, 9, 16–17
compound, 234–238
compound lens, 515
compound microscope, 521–526
compression wave, 455–456
concave lens, 509–510
concave mirror, 511–512
condensation, 281–282
conductance, 311
conductive heat, 265–266
conductor, electrical, 297–298
cone, 104–105
conservation of momentum,
196–197
constant, 3, 5, 160–164
dimensionless, 10
physical, 10
convective heat, 265–266
converging lens, 508
conversion factor, 7–8
convex lens, 507–509
convex mirror, 510–511
core saturation, 358–359
corpuscular theory of light, 457
corresponding angles, 84–85
cosecant, 125–131
of negative angle, 129
cosine, 124–131
of angular difference, 131
of angular sum, 130
of double angle, 129
of half angle, 130
of negative angle, 128
cosmic particles, 488–489
cotangent, 125–131
of negative angle, 129
coulomb, 156
coulomb per kilogram, 494
critical angle, 502, 505–506
cross product, 21–22, 24, 25–26
cube, 108–109
cubic equation, 18–19
current, 299–300, 353
current amplification, 410–412
current calculations, 308–309
cylinder, 105–107
cylindrical coordinates, 68–69596 INDEX
dc motor, 364–365
decay constant, 493–494
decimal point, 31
declination, 66–67
degree:
angular, 154–155
of phase, 330–331
density:
mass, 253, 258
of gas, 258
of liquids, 253–254
of solids, 245–246
particle, 253, 258
weight, 253, 258
dependent variable, 49
depletion, 413–414
depletion mode, 420–421
detection, 400–401
diamagnetic material, 357
dielectric, 299, 381
dielectric breakdown, 385
dielectric constant, 381
diffraction, 451–452
diffusion:
of gases, 259–260
of liquids, 251
dimensionless constant, 10
diode, 397–405
dipole, 351
direct current, 297–320
dispersion, 506–507
displacement, 176–178
distance addition and subtraction,
81–82
distance notation, 78
diverging lens, 509
division, 4, 38–39
dose equivalent, 494
dot product, 21–22, 24, 25–26,
202–203
double-slit experiment, 461–462
duct effect, 480–481
ductility, 243–244
dynamic current amplification, 411
dynamic mutual conductance, 416
Einstein, Albert, 459, 529
elasticity, 248–250
electric generator, 365–366
electrical conductor, 297–298
electrical diagram, 303–306
basic symbols in, 303–306
electrical insulator, 298–299
electrical potential, 302–303
electrical power, 212–213
electromagnet, 354–357
electromagnetic field, 467–474
electromagnetic waves, 438
electromotive force, 301–303
electron, 227–228
elements, 218–219
ELF field, 472–474
ellipse, 102–103
energy, 204–209
kinetic, 206–209
potential, 204–206
English system, 148
enhancement mode, 420–421
equilateral triangle, 90–91
equation, 3–20
equatorial axis, 65
equivalence principle, 546–547
error, 41–42
absolute, 42
percentage, 42
proportional, 42
euclidean geometry, 77–78
exponent, 4, 29, 33
exponential function, 30, 119–124
common, 119–120
exponential of common, 121–122
natural, 119–120
of ratio, 124
product of, 120, 122–123
ratio of, 121, 123–124
reciprocal of natural, 120
exponentiation, 4, 39
extremely-low-frequency (ELF) field,
472–474
Fahrenheit scale, 272–274
farad, 157, 381
ferromagnetic material, 357
field of view,
absolute, 519–521
apparent, 513
field-effect transistor, 412–421
fifth-order equation, 19–20
first-order equation, one-variable,
9–12
fission, 230–231, 491, 495
fluctuating field, 468–469
fluorescence, 484
flux density, 353, 360–361
flux lines, 348–350
focal length, 508
focal point, 508
focusing, of microscope, 523
force, 175–177
force field, 455–456
formula, 3, 5–7
forward bias, 408
forward breakover, 398–399
fourth-order equation, 19
frequency, 324–325, 440–442, 469
frequency units, 442
fusion, 230, 261, 491, 492
gain bandwidth product, 411–412
galilean refractor, 512–513, 514
Galilei, Galileo 512
gamma rays, 487–488
gas density, 258
gaseous phase, 258–262
gauss, 351–352
general theory of relativity, 544–553
geomagnetism, 345–346
geometry, 77–109
euclidean, 77–78
gigahertz, 442
gilbert, 352
graphic solution to pairs of equations,
59–61
gravitational acceleration, 164
gravitational waves, 438–439
ground-wave propagation, 477–478
Greenwich meridian, 65–66
Gunn diode, 401
half-life, 492–493
hardness, 244–245
Mohs scale of, 244–245
harmonics, 444–446
Hardy, G. H., 45, 46
heat, 265–269
conductive, 265–266
convective, 265–266
radiative, 265–266
heat of fusion, 279–280
heat of vaporization, 282–283
henry, 157, 372
hertz, 157, 324, 442
heterodyning, 453–455
higher-order equation, 18–20
Hooke’s law, 249
Huygens, Christian, 457INDEX 597
imaginary number, 9, 16–17
imaginary number line, 17
IMPATT diode, 402
impedance:
absolute-value, 393–395
RLC, 390–395
vector representation of, 391–392
impulse, 194–196
independent variable, 49
index of refraction, 501
inductance, 371–379
inductive reactance, 375–379
inductors:
in parallel, 373–375
in series, 373–375
infrared, 402, 481–483
infrared-emitting diode (IRED), 402
injection laser, 403
instantaneous amplitude, 332
insulator, electrical, 298–299
integrated circuit, 421–422
interference, 448–451
International System (SI), 148
ion, 228–230
ionosphere, 475
irregular waves, 447–448
isosceles triangle, 89–90
isotope, 221–222, 225
joule, 155
junction capacitance, 399–400, 401
junction field-effect transistor, 412–417
kelvin, 151–152
Kelvin scale, 271–272
Kepler, Johannes, 513
keplerian refractor, 513–514
kilocalorie, 267
kilogram, 149–150
kinetic energy, 206–209
Kirchhoff’s laws, 318–320
lagging phase, 339–340
laser diode, 403
latitude, 65–66
celestial, 66
law of reflection, 500–501
leading phase, 338–339
lens:
concave, 509–510
converging, 508
convex, 507–509
lens (Cont.):
diverging, 509
planoconcave, 510
planoconvex, 509
light, speed of, 162–164
light rays, 499–500
light-emitting diode (LED), 402
light-gathering area, 518–519
linear equation, 49–55
point-slope form of, 52–54
slope-intercept form of, 49–52
lines of flux, 328–350
liquid phase, 251–258
liquid volume, 254–255
liter, 253
logarithm, 113–118
common, 114–115, 118
natural, 114–115, 118
of power, 116
of product, 115
of ratio, 116
of reciprocal, 117
of root, 117–118
log-log coordinates, 72–73
longitude, 65–66
celestial, 66
longitudinal wave, 455–456
luminiferous ether, 458–459, 529–530
magnetic compass, 346–347
magnetic data storage, 366–368
magnetic disk, 367–368
magnetic field strength, 351–354
magnetic flux, 348–350
magnetic force, 347
magnetic machines, 361–366
magnetic material, 357–361
magnetic polarity, 349–351
magnetic tape, 366–367
magnetism, 345–368
magnetomotive force, 352
magnification:
in microscope, 523–524
in telescope, 517–518
malleability, 243–244
mass, 171–175
mass density, 253
mass distortion, 541–544
matter, states of, 241–262
maxwell, 351
mean life, 220, 492
mechanical power, 209–212
megahertz. 442
metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect
transistor, 417–421
meteor-scatter propagation, 479
meter, 149
mho, 311
Michelson, Albert, 530
Michelson-Morley experiment, 530
microscope, compound, 521–526
midpoint principle, 79
milliliter, 253
mirror:
concave, 511–512
parabolic, 512
spherical, 512
Mohs scale of hardness, 244–245
mole, 153
molecule, 235, 237–238
momentum, 193–196
monopole, 351
Morley, Edward, 530
motor/generator, 365
multiplication, 3–4, 37–38
vector-scalar, 23
mutual perpendicularity, 86
National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), 8
negatron, 490
neutrino, 490–491
neutron, 220
newton, 155, 176
Newton, Isaac, 457, 515
Newtonian reflector, 515–516
Newton’s laws of motion, 188–189
noneuclidean geometry, 85–86
nth-order equation, 20
nuclear fission, 230–231
nuclear fusion, 230, 261
nucleus, 219–227
numerical aperture, 524–526
number:
complex, 9
imaginary, 9
real, 9
number line, 9
ohm, 156, 299
Ohm’s law, 307
one-variable fifth-order equation, 19–20
one-variable first-order equation, 9–12
one-variable fourth-order equation, 19598 INDEX
one-variable higher-order equation,
18–20
one-variable nth-order equation, 20
one-variable second-order equation,
12–18
optics, 499–526
order of magnitude, 33–34, 70–72
ordinate, 49
pairs of equations, graphic solution
to, 59–61
parabola, equation of, 55–58
parabolic mirror, 512
parallel principle, 85–86
parallelogram, 93–94, 98–99
particle density, 253
Pascal’s law, 256–258
peak amplitude, 333, 336
peak-to-peak amplitude, 333–336
percentage error, 42
period, 323–324, 441
permanent magnet, 359–360
permeability, 357–359
perpendicular bisector, 80–81
phase angle, 336–342
phase coincidence, 337
phase opposition, 337–338
photon, 457
photovoltaic (PV) cell, 404–405
physical constant, 10
pinchoff, 414
plain-text exponent, 33
planoconcave lens, 510
planoconvex lens, 509
point of view, 531–533
point-point-point, 87
point-slope form, 52–54
polar axis, 65
polar coordinate plane, 62–64
polarity, 349–351
positron, 231
potential energy, 204–206
power:
distribution, 317
electrical, 212–213
mechanical, 209–212
power calculations, 309–310
power-of-10 notation, 31, 35–43
alternative, 31
standard, 31
precedence, 42–43
prefix multiplier, 34, 158–159
pressure:
of gases, 261–262
in liquids, 255–256
prime meridian, 65–66
principle of n points, 78
propagation speed, 441
proportional error, 42
proton, 219–220
pyramid, 103–104
pythagorean theorem:
for secant and tangent, 128
for sine and cosine, 127–128
quadratic equation, 12–18
factored form, 13–14
standard form, 13–14
quadratic formula, 14–16
quadrilateral, 92–101
quartic equation, 19
quintic equation, 19
radian, 62, 154, 331
radiative heat, 265–266
radioactive dating, 495
radioactive waste, 491–492
radioactivity, 490–497
radio-frequency (rf) wave, 474–481
radix point, 31
Rankine scale, 272
RC quarter-plane, 388–390
reactance:
and frequency, 386–388
capacitive, 384–390
in general, 391
inductive, 375–379
real image, 508, 521
real number, 9, 16–17
real number line, 17
rectangle, 94–95, 99–100
rectangular coordinates, 49–50
rectangular prism, 109
rectangular three-space, 67–68
rectangular wave, 326
rectification, 400
reflection, 500–501, 502
law of, 500–501
total internal, 502
reflecting telescope, 515–517
cassegrain, 516–517
newtonian, 515–516
refracting telescope, 512–515
galilean, 512–513, 514
refracting telescope (Cont.):
keplerian, 513–514
refraction, 500–506
refractive index, 501
relativity theory, 529–553
general, 544–553
special, 529–544
relay, 362–364
rem, 494
remanence, 358
residual magnetism, 356
resistance calculations, 309
resistances:
in parallel, 311–312, 315–316
in series, 310–311, 312–315
resistor, 299
resolution:
in microscope, 524–526
in telescope, 518
resolving power, 518
resonance, 445–446
retentivity, 358–359
reverse bias, 408
rhombus, 95–96, 99
right ascension, 66–67
right triangle, 91
ringer, 361–362
RL quarter-plane, 377–389
RLC impedance, 390–395
roentgen, 494
Roentgen, Wilhelm, 485
root, 39–40
root-mean-square (rms) amplitude,
335
rounding, 41
RX half-plane, 390–391
saturation, 408–409
sawtooth wave, 326–328
scalar, 20, 25
addition, 24
multiplication, 24, 25
schematic diagram, 303–306
basic symbols in, 303–306
scientific notation, 29–47
secant, 125–131
of negative angle, 129
second, 150–151
second-order equation, 12–18
seiche, 443–444
semiconductors, 397–422
semilog coordinates, 70–72INDEX 599
siemens, 156, 311
side-angle-side, 87–88
side-side-side, 87
sievert, 494
significant figures, 44–47
silicon photodiode, 403–404
similar triangles, 89
simultaneity, 529–533
sine, 124–131
of angular difference, 130
of angular sum, 130
of double angle, 129
of half angle, 130
of negative angle, 128
sine wave, 325, 329–330, 439–440
slope, 49–54
slope-intercept form, 49–52
Snell’s law, 503–505
solar activity, 477
solar wind, 346
solid phase, 242–250
solid volume, 247
spatial curvature, 547–549
spatial distortion, 539–541
special theory of relativity, 529–544
specific gravity:
of solids, 248
specific heat, 267–268
spectrophotometer, 483–484
speed, 178–181
speed of light, 530
sphere, 107
spherical aberration, 514
spherical coordinates, 69
spherical mirror, 512
sporadic-E propagation, 478
square, 100
square root, 15
square wave, 325–326
standard power-of-10 notation, 31
standard temperature and pressure
(STP), 276
standing waves, 446–447
states of matter, 241–262
static current amplification, 410–411
static electricity, 300–301
static field, 467–468
steradian, 155
subscript, 29–30
subtraction, 3–4, 36–37
sum of vectors, 21–22
sunspot cycle, 477
superimposed dc, 335–336
superscript, 30–32
tangent, 124–131
of negative angle, 128–129
telescope:
reflecting, 515–517
refracting, 512–515
temperature, 269–283
terahertz, 442
tesla, 158, 351–352
theorem of Pythagoras, 91
thermal coefficient of linear expansion,
276–278
thermal contraction, 276–278
thermal expansion, 276–278
third-order equation, 18
three-point principle, 78
time dilation, 534–538, 549–550
total internal reflection, 502
transconductance, 416–417
transistor:
bipolar, 405–412
field-effect, 412–421
transverse wave, 455–456
trapezoid, 96–97, 101
triangle, 86–92
angle-angle-angle, 89–90
angle-side-angle, 88–89
area of, 92
equilateral, 90–91
isosceles, 89–90
perimeter of, 92
point-point-point, 87
right, 91
side-angle-side, 87–88
side-side-side, 87
triangular wave, 327–328
trigonometric functions, 124–127
basic circular, 125–126
right-triangle model, 126–127
secondary circular, 126
trigonometric identities, 127–131
troposcatter, 480
tropospheric bending, 479
truncation, 40
tunnel diode, 402
two-point principle, 78
ultraviolet, 483–485
uniform resource locator, 8
unit conversions, 165–168
unit imaginary number, 16
variable, 3, 5
vector, 3, 20–26
addition, 25
arithmetic, 20–26
multiplication with scalar, 23, 24
representation of phase, 339–342
velocity, 181–183
vertical angles, 83
viscosity, 251–252
visible light, 483
volt, 156
voltage, 302–303
voltage amplification, 414–415
voltage calculations, 309
voltage/current/resistance circuit,
305–310
watt, 155
wave interaction, 448–455
wave phenomena, 437–463
waveforms, 325–328
wavelength, 440–441, 469, 470–472
weber, 157–158, 351
weight, 172
weight density, 253
work, 202–204
x-rays, 485–487
xy plane, 49–50
xyz space, 67–68
Young, Thomas, 461
Zener diode, 400
zero bias, 407
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