Ionizing Radiation and Polymers – Principles, Technology and Applications

Ionizing Radiation and Polymers – Principles, Technology and Applications (2012)
Jiri George Drobny
Table of contents
Dedication
Preface
Abbreviations

1. Introduction
   1.1 Radiation Types and Sources
   1.2 Ionizing Radiations
   1.3 Ion Beam Radiation
   1.4 Laser Beam Radiation
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
2. Fundamentals of Radiation Chemistry and Physics
   2.1 Introduction
   2.2 Interaction of High-Energy Electrons with Organic Matter
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
3. Equipment Used for Radiation Processing of Polymers
   3.1 γ-Ray Irradiation Equipment
   3.2 EB Irradiation Equipment
   3.3 X-Ray Processing Equipment
   3.4 Current Developments in EB Processing Equipment and Technology
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
4. Electron Beam Processes
   4.1 Introduction
   4.2 Methods to Enhance EB Radiation Cross-linking by Prorads
   4.3 Retarders of Radiation Cross-linking
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
5. Electron Beam Processing of Commercial Polymers, Monomers, and Oligomers
   5.1 Processing of Thermoplastics
   5.2 EB Processing of Elastomers
   5.3 EB Processing of Liquid Systems
   5.4 Grafting and Other Polymer Modifications
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
6. Industrial Applications of Ionizing Radiation
   6.1 EB Process in Wire and Cable Technology
   6.2 EB Process in Tire Technology
   6.3 EB Process in the Manufacture of Polyolefin Foams
   6.4 EB Process in the Production of Heat-Shrinkable Materials
   6.5 Cross-linked PE Pipes
   6.6 EB Process in Coatings, Adhesives, Paints, and Printing Inks
   6.7 Production of Fluoroadditives
   6.8 Radiation Curing of Polymeric Composites
   6.9 Hydrogels
   6.10 Sterilization of Medical Devices
   6.11 Other Applications for Ionizing Radiation
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
7. Radiation-Resistant Polymers and Their Applications
   7.1 Degradation and Stability
   7.2 Applications of Radiation-Resistant Polymers
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
8. Dosimetry and Real-Time Process Monitoring
   8.1 Dosimetry
   8.2 Real-Time Monitors
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
9. Safety and Hygiene
   9.1 EB Equipment Health and Safety
   9.2 γ-Ray Health and Safety
   9.3 Chemical Hazards
   References
   Recommended Further Reading
10. Current State of Technology and Trends
    10.1 Current New Developments and Trends in Equipment and Chemistry
    10.2 New Developments and Trends in Process Technology
    10.3 Other New Development and Trends
    References
    Appendix I. Major EB Equipment Manufacturers
    Appendix II. Standards and Specifications Applicable to Ionizing Radiation
    AII.1 ASTM Standards
    AII.2 ISO/ASTM Standards
    AII.3 Other Resources for Dosimetry
    Appendix III. Units of Exposure, Absorbed Dose, and Conversions
    AIII.1 Exposure
    AIII.2 Absorbed Dose
    AIII.3 Equivalent Dose
    Appendix IV. Equation Used
    Appendix V. The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry
    Bibliography
    Glossary
    Index
    Note: Page numbers followed by “f ” and “t” refer to figures and tables, respectively.
    A
    Absorbed dose, 11
    12, 261
    Absorbed energy, 11
    Accelerating voltage, 7
    Acrylic compounds, 91
    95
    Adhesives, 191
    195
    laminating, 194
    195
    pressure-sensitive, 192
    194
    Advanced composites, 196
    Advanced fiber-reinforced composites,
    196
    200
    AEB emitter, 75f
    Aerospace applications, of radiation-resistant
    polymers, 218
    220
    Alanine dosimeters, 232
    ALARA (as low as reasonably
    achievable), 239
    Aliphatic polyesters, 111
    Allylic compounds, 91
    95
    Antirads, 95
    Applications of ionizing radiation
    artificial joints, 204
    205
    battery separators, 204
    filter membranes, 204
    Artificial joints, ionizing radiation
    application as, 204
    205
    ASTM Standards, for ionizing
    radiation, 259
    Atmospheric plasma processing (APP), 252
    B
    Battery separators, ionizing radiation
    application as, 204
    Bequerel (Bq), 4
    Bias-oriented PP (BOPP), 252
    Bremsstrahlung, 6
    BROADBEAMt, 48
    51
    EP series, 66, 68f
    LE series, 64
    66, 68f
    OSD series, 66
    68, 69f
    Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (BINP),
    43, 257
    258
    C
    Cable, 150
    qualification tests of, 222
    Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), 203
    Cast and Curet system, 251
    Cathode ray, 1
    Cellophane films, 228
    Cellulose degradation for paper and viscose
    production, 254
    Ceric
    cerous dosimetry, 232
    Chain scission, 16, 18t
    Charlesby
    Pinner equation, 17, 19f, 20, 263
    Chemical hazards, of EB equipments,
    240
    242
    Chemistry, new developments and trends in,
    251
    252
    CHV (compact high-voltage systems), 59, 59f
    Coatings, EB process in, 186
    187
    applications of, 186
    187
    on flexible substrates, 187
    on rigid substrates, 187
    Coaxial cable, 150
    152
    Cobalt-60, 28, 28f
    Cockcroft
    Walton generators, 37, 52f
    Comet AG, 69, 70f, 257
    258
    Comet e-beam Emitter
    modular design of, 77f
    schematic of, 77f
    Commercial EB reactors, performance
    and use, 51
    68
    Composite materials, 200
    202
    Copolymer of ethylene and
    tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), 109
    291Copolymer of ethylene and
    trichlorofluoroethylene (ECTFE),
    109
    Corex, 257
    258
    Coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), 261
    Cross-head die, 153f
    Crosshead extrusion process, 153
    Cross-link density, 264
    Cross-link promoters, 88
    89
    Cross-linked PE (PEX) pipes, 181
    184
    irradiation of PE pipes, 183
    184
    production of, 182
    183
    Cross-linking, defining, 16
    Cure yield, measuring, 229
    Curie (Ci), 4
    Custom systems, 58
    59, 58f
    Cyclotron, 8f
    D
    Degradation by ionizing radiation,
    216
    218
    Delivered dose, 264
    265
    Depth-dose distribution, 32, 229
    Dimaleimides, 90
    Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), 136
    Direct accelerators, 33
    34
    Discoloration, 214
    215
    Dose limit ratio, 32
    Dose reader, 229
    230, 230f
    Dose uniformity, measuring, 229
    Dose uniformity ratio (DUR), 32
    Dose-rate effects, 216
    Dosimetry, 225
    233
    criteria for selecting, 226
    227
    examples of, 226t
    functions of, 225
    226
    Dynamitron, 37
    39, 59, 60f
    E
    Easy-e-Beam, 49
    51, 50f, 63
    64, 64f, 158f
    E-beam Test Lab, 69
    EBOCAMs, 47
    EBOGEN processing unit, 47, 48f
    EC-Beam, 51, 53f
    EC-LAB 400, 69
    71, 70f
    EC-Print, 51
    53, 54f
    EC-Scanner, 51, 53f
    EC-Tube, 53
    54, 54f
    Effective polyfunctional prorads, 94t
    Elastomers
    electron beam processing of, 112
    132
    vulcanization of, 114
    Electrical conductivity, radiation-induced, 215
    Electrocure Casette, 56
    57, 57f
    Electrocurtains, 45
    47
    Electromagnetic radiation, 2, 2t
    Electron beam processes, 83
    89, 149
    in adhesives, 191
    195
    laminating adhesives, 194
    195
    pressure-sensitive adhesives, 192
    194
    in coatings, 186
    187
    cross-linked PE (PEX) pipes, 181
    184
    irradiation of PE pipes, 183
    184
    cross-linking, 182
    by polythiols, 92t
    by prorads, 89
    95
    curable systems with common solvents
    toxicity and properties, comparison
    of, 241t
    direct cross-link promoters, 90
    95
    acrylic and allylic compounds, 91
    95
    maleimides, 90
    91
    thiols (polymercaptans), 91
    of elastomers, 112
    132
    individual elastomers, effects of
    radiation on, 118
    132
    radiation cross-linked elastomers,
    physical properties of, 116
    117
    equipments
    for health and safety, 237
    239
    manufacturers, 257
    258
    personal radiation monitoring, 238
    239
    radiation monitoring systems, 239
    grafting, 134
    138
    indirect cross-link promoters, 89
    90
    bases, 90
    halogenated compounds, 89
    nitrous oxide, 89
    90
    sulfur monochloride, 90
    irradiation equipment, 32
    72
    design and operation of industrial EB
    reactors, 32
    51
    direct accelerators, 34
    39
    indirect accelerators, 39
    43
    particle accelerators, 33
    51
    irradiators, 13
    liquid systems, 132
    134
    market, by continent, 152f
    292 INDEXin magnetic media, 186
    in manufacture of polyolefin foams,
    170
    174
    applications, 173
    174
    chemical and radiation processes,
    comparison of, 173
    foam expansion and its control, 171
    172
    manufacturing processes, 172
    polymer modifications, 139
    in printing and graphic arts, 187
    191
    flexography, 188
    189
    rotogravure printing, 189
    191
    in production of heat-shrinkable materials,
    174
    181
    heat-shrinkable sheets and films,
    178
    181
    heat-shrinkable tubing, 176
    177
    radiation cross-linking, retarders of, 95
    thermoplastics, 101
    112
    engineering plastics, 111
    112
    fluoroplastics, 107
    111
    poly(methyl methacrylate), 107
    polyolefins, 101
    105
    polystyrene, 105
    106
    polyvinyl chloride and polyvinylidene
    chloride, 106
    107
    in tire technology, 165
    170
    in wire and cable technology, 150
    165
    equipment and processes, 153
    161
    materials, 163
    165
    radiation equipment and process,
    161
    163
    recent developments and trends, 165
    Electron penetration range, 85
    86
    Electron processors, 43
    44
    Electron volts (eV), 7
    Electrostatic generators, 35
    36
    Elektron Crosslinking AB (Sweden), 51
    54,
    69
    71, 257
    258
    ELV accelerators, 51
    Energy deposited equation, 264
    Energy Sciences Inc. (Massachusetts), 54
    59,
    71, 257
    258
    Engel/peroxide method, in PEX
    production, 182
    Engineering plastics, processing of, 111
    112
    high-performance engineering plastics, 112
    regular service engineering plastics, 111
    Equal-entrance exposure, 86
    87
    Equal-exit exposure, 86
    87
    Equipments
    new developments and trends in, 246
    247
    4 in 1 flexible packaging line, 251
    cellulose degradation for paper and
    viscose production, 254
    ethanol/biofuel production, cellulose
    degradation for, 254
    integrated shield roll, 247
    248
    low-profile systems, 247
    municipal waste recycling by
    irradiation, 254
    sealed tube emitters based EB systems,
    249
    251
    ultralow-energy EB systems, 247
    for polymers radiation processing, 27
    commercial EB reactors, performance
    and use, 51
    68
    current developments, in EB
    processing equipment and
    technology, 74
    78
    design and operation of industrial EB
    reactors, 32
    51
    EB irradiation equipment, 32
    72
    γ-ray irradiation equipment, 27
    32
    laboratory EB units, 69
    72
    X-ray processing equipment, 72
    73
    Equivalent dose, 261
    Ethanol/biofuel production, cellulose
    degradation for, 254
    Ethylene
    propylene
    diene rubber (EPDM)
    terpolymers, 125
    126
    Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), 160
    161
    Ethylene
    propylene copolymers, 125
    126
    Exposure, 261
    Extrusion, 153
    154
    EZCure DF, 54, 55f
    EZCure F-1, 54
    56, 55f
    EZCure-CR, 56, 56f
    EZCure-LS, 56, 57f
    EZLab, 71, 71f
    F
    Fast check strips dosimeters, 253
    FEP, electron beam processing of, 109
    Fiber optic cables, 150
    152
    Fiber-reinforced composites, 196
    Film badge dosimeters, 238
    239
    Film dosimetry, 227, 229
    INDEX 293Filter membranes, ionizing radiation
    application as, 204
    Flexography, 188
    189
    Flory
    Rehner equation, 115
    116, 263
    Fluoroadditives, production of, 195
    196
    Fluorocarbon elastomers, 128
    129
    Fluoroplastics, processing of, 107
    111
    copolymer of ethylene and
    tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), 109
    copolymer of ethylene
    and trichlorofluoroethylene
    (ECTFE), 109
    FEP and PFA, 109
    polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), 109
    polytetrafluoroethylene, 108
    polytrifluoroethylene (PF3E), 111
    polyvinylfluoride (PVF), 110
    111
    polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 110
    Fluorosilicone elastomers, electron beam
    processing of, 129
    4 in 1 flexible packaging line, 251
    Four-side irradiation, of W&C, 164f
    Free-radical polymerization, 18t
    Fundamentals of radiation chemistry
    and physics, 11
    high-energy electrons with organic matter,
    interaction of, 13
    24
    G
    Gamma rays (γ-ray), 3
    4, 12
    13
    health and safety, 239
    240
    Gaseous products, formation of, 215
    Gel fraction, 171
    Gel level, 171
    Gel point, 18
    19
    Graft copolymer, 135
    Grafting, 17, 18t, 134
    138
    Graphite calorimeter, 231f
    Graphite-fiber-reinforced composites, 198
    Gray (Gy), 261
    Green chemistry, principles of, 267
    268
    Grun range, 263
    H
    Half-life, 4
    Halogenated compounds, 89
    Heat-shrinkable materials production,
    EB process in, 174
    181
    alternative patented method of, 178f
    heat-shrinkable sheets and films,
    178
    181
    heat-shrinkable tubing, 176
    177
    plastic memory effect of, 179f
    Raychem patent for, 177f
    High-density polyethylene (HDPE), 102,
    181
    182
    pipes, cross-linking of, 183
    High-energy EPS processor with scanner,
    65f, 66t
    Hydrogels, 202
    203
    Hypalons, 165
    I
    IBA Industrial (Belgium), 59
    61,
    257
    258
    ILU accelerators, 43
    Indirect accelerators, 33
    34
    Industrial applications, of ionizing
    radiation, 149
    applications for
    artificial joints, 204
    205
    battery separators, 204
    filter membranes, 204
    cross-linked PE pipes (PEX), 181
    184
    irradiation of PE pipes, 183
    184
    EB (electron beam) process
    adhesives, 184
    195
    laminatingadhesives, 194
    195
    pressuresensitiveadhesives, 192
    194
    cable manufacture, equipment and
    processes in, 153
    161
    extrusion, 153
    154
    radiationversuschemicalcrosslinking,
    155
    161
    vulcanization(crosslinking), 154
    155
    chemical and radiation processes,
    comparison of, 173
    coatings, 184
    195
    foam expansion and its control, 171
    172
    heat-shrinkable sheets and films,
    178
    181
    heat-shrinkable tubing, 176
    177
    magnetic media, 186
    manufacturing processes, 172
    materials, 163
    165
    in manufacture of polyolefin foams,
    170
    174
    in paints, 184
    195
    294 INDEXpolyolefin foams, applications of,
    173
    174
    printing and graphic arts, 187
    191
    in printing inks, 184
    195
    in production of heat-shrinkable
    materials, 174
    181
    recent developments and trends, 165
    in tire technology, 165
    170
    in wire and cable technology, 150
    165
    W&C manufacture, radiation equipment
    and process in, 161
    163
    fluoroadditives, production of, 195
    196
    hydrogels, 202
    203
    polymeric composites, radiation curing of,
    196
    202
    advanced fiber-reinforced composites,
    196
    200
    composite materials, 200
    202
    sterilization of medical devices, 203
    204
    Infrared (IR) radiation, 1
    Insulating core transformers (ICTs), 37
    Integrated shield roll, 247
    248
    International Commission on Radiological
    Protection (ICRP), 240
    Ion beam radiation, 1, 7
    8
    Ionizing radiations, 2
    7
    EB radiation, 7
    gamma rays, 3
    4
    sources comparison, 5t
    X-rays, 4
    6
    Iron core transformers, 37
    ISO/ASTM Standards, for ionizing radiation,
    259
    260
    J
    Jacketing, 153
    K
    K-shell, 6
    L
    Lambert
    Beer law, 4, 263
    Laminar wood-plastic composites (WPCs),
    201
    202
    Laminating adhesives, 194
    195
    Laser beam radiation, 1, 8
    Linacs, 39
    standing wave (SW), 40
    traveling wave (TW), 39
    40
    Linear cathode electron accelerators,
    45
    47, 46f
    Linear energy transfer (LET), 7
    8
    Linear induction accelerator (LIA), 40
    41
    Linear low-density polyethylene
    (LLDPE), 102
    Liquid systems, electron beam processing
    of, 132
    134
    Long-chain branching, 16
    Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 102
    Low-energy EB equipment, 253
    Low-energy electron accelerators, 43
    51
    Low-profile systems, 247
    M
    Magnetic media, 186
    Maleimides, 90
    91
    Man
    machine interfaces (MMI), 45
    47
    Medical devices, sterilization of, 203
    204
    Medium-Energy EPS series, 67t
    Mevex, 257
    258
    Microwave linear accelerator, 39
    Microwaves, 1
    Mooney
    Rivlin equation, 116, 264
    Multiconductor cable, 150
    152, 152f
    Multifilament linear cathode electron
    accelerators, 48
    51
    Multifunctional monomers, 91
    Multimode fiber, 150
    152
    Multipass wire irradiation, 164f
    Municipal waste recycling by
    irradiation, 254
    N
    Natural rubber
    cross-links and scissions in, 96t
    and synthetic polyisoprene, 118
    120
    NHV Corporation (Japan), 64, 257
    258
    Nitrile rubber (NBR), 127
    Nitrous oxide, 89
    90
    Nuclear industry applications, 221
    222
    N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP), 139
    P
    Paints, EB process in, 184
    195
    Panoramic irradiators, 31
    Particle accelerators, 33
    51
    direct accelerators, 34
    39
    indirect accelerators, 39
    43
    INDEX 295PCT Engineered Systems, LLC, Davenport,
    Iowa, 64
    69, 257
    258
    PE dosimetry, 232
    233
    Perfluoroelastomers, 129
    Peroxidation radiation procedure, 135
    Personal radiation monitoring, 238
    239
    PFA, electron beam processing of, 109
    Plastic fiber, 150
    152
    Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA),
    processing of, 107
    Polyamides, 111
    Polybutadiene, electron beam processing
    of, 120
    124
    Polycarbonates, 111
    Polychloroprene, 126
    127
    Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), 109
    Polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMS), 128
    Polyethylene (PE), 90
    91, 102
    104
    Polyfunctional monomers, 91
    93
    Polyfunctional prorads, in various
    polymers, 94t
    Polyisobutylene, electron beam processing
    of, 124
    125
    Polymeric composites, radiation curing of,
    196
    202
    advanced fiber-reinforced composites,
    196
    200
    composite materials, 200
    202
    Polymerization, 16, 20
    22
    anionic, 252
    cationic, 132
    133
    emulsion, 126
    free-radical, 18t
    grafting, 134
    135
    Polymer modifications, 139
    Polyolefins, 174
    foams manufacturing, EB process in,
    170
    174
    applications of, 173
    174
    comparison of chemical and radiation
    processes, 173
    foam expansion and its control,
    171
    172
    processes, 172
    pipes, irradiation of, 183
    184
    processing of, 101
    105
    polyethylene, 102
    104
    polypropylene, 104
    105
    Polypropylene (PP), 104
    105
    Polystyrene
    processing of, 105
    106
    radiation resistance of, 215
    Polytetrafluoethylene resins, properties of, 195t
    Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), electron
    beam processing of, 108
    Polytrifluoroethylene (PF3E), 111
    Polyvinylacetate, 90
    91
    Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 203
    Polyvinyl chloride, processing of, 106
    107
    Polyvinylfluoride (PVF), 110
    111, 160
    Polyvinylidene chloride, 107
    Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 110
    Postirradiation oxidation effects, 216
    217
    Potential drop accelerators, 33
    34
    Pre-radiation procedure, of radiation
    grafting, 135
    Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs),
    192
    194, 252
    Primary insulation, 153
    Printing and graphic arts, EB process in,
    187
    191
    flexography, 188
    189
    printing inks, 184
    195
    rotogravure printing, 189
    191
    Process dose, 31
    32
    Process technology, new developments and
    trends in, 252
    254
    Programmable process controllers (PLC),
    45
    47
    Prorads, 88
    89
    R
    Rad, 261
    Radiation cross-linked elastomers, physical
    properties of, 116
    117
    Radiation curing, 16
    Radiation grafting, see Grafting
    Radiation monitoring systems, 239
    Radiation rapid curing (RRC), 138
    Radiation sterilization, 220
    221
    Radiation types and sources, 1
    2
    Radiation versus chemical cross-linking,
    155
    161
    Radiation-induced electrical conductivity,
    215
    Radiation-resistant polymers, 213
    applications of, 218
    222
    aerospace applications, 218
    220
    296 INDEXnuclear industry applications, 221
    222
    radiation sterilization, 220
    221
    degradation and stability, 213
    218
    in absence of oxygen, 213
    216
    in air, 216
    218
    specific polymers, 218
    Radical scavengers, 217
    Radioactive decay, 3
    4
    Radioactive isotope, 3
    4
    Radioactivity, 4
    Radiochromic films, 227
    Radionuclide, 28
    Radionuclide Cobalt-60, 29f
    REACH (Registration, Evaluation,
    Authorisation and Restriction of
    Chemicals), 242
    Reactive thinners, 133
    134
    Real-time monitors, 233
    Rem, 261
    Resin-transfer molding (RTM), 198
    Resonant cavity accelerators, 40
    Resonant transformers, 36
    37
    Rhodotron, 61
    62, 61f
    Rhodotron accelerators, 41
    42
    Rhodotron TT 200, 62, 62f
    Rhodotron TT 300, 62, 62f
    Rhodotron TT 1000, 63, 63f
    RisøScan, 229
    230
    Ro¨ntgen (R), 261
    Ro¨ntgen radiation, see X-radiation
    Rotogravure printing, 189
    191
    ROTO-JET system, for grinding irradiated
    fluoropolymers, 197f
    S
    Safety and hygiene, of EB equipments, 237
    Scanning-type electron accelerators, 44
    Sealed tube emitters based EB systems,
    249
    251
    Sekisui process, 172
    for polyolefin foams, 173f
    Self-contained irradiators, 30
    31
    Self-shielding processor, 47f, 50f, 52f, 65f
    Semicrystalline polymers, 24
    Sheathing, see Jacketing
    Short fibers, 196
    Sievert (Sv), 261
    Silane method, of PEX production, 182
    Silicone elastomers, 127
    128
    Simultaneous radiation grafting method,
    135
    136
    Single-mode fiber, 150
    152
    Single-stage scanned beam accelerator, 45, 46f
    Source Rack Module, 29f
    Stabilizers for radiation degradation in air,
    217
    218
    Standards and Specifications, for ionizing
    radiation, 259
    260
    Standing wave linacs, 40
    Steigerwald Strahltechnik GmbH, 257
    258
    Sterilization of medical devices, 203
    204
    Sulfur monochloride, 90
    Sunna dosimeter, 232
    Surface area rate, measuring, 229
    Sustainability features, 246
    T
    Terpolymers, 125
    126
    Tetrafluoroethylene-propylene
    (TFE-P), 129
    Thermoluminiscent dosimeters (TLDs), 239
    Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs), 129
    132
    polyolefins-based, 132
    Thermoplastics, processing of, 101
    112
    engineering plastics, 111
    112
    fluoroplastics, 107
    111
    poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), 107
    polyolefins, 101
    105
    polystyrene, 105
    106
    polyvinyl chloride and polyvinylidene
    chloride, 106
    107
    Thin film dosimeters, 227, 253
    254
    Thiols (polymercaptans), 91
    Throughput, 264
    Tire technology, EB process in, 165
    170
    Toray process, 172
    for polyolefin foams, 174f
    Traveling wave linacs, 39
    40
    Triallyl cyanurate (TAC), 93
    Triallyl isocyanurate (TAIC), 93
    Trimethylolpropane triacrylate
    (TMPTA), 106
    Trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate
    (TMPTMA), 106
    Trommsdorff peak, 136
    Trunk polymer, 134
    135
    Twisted pairs cable, 150
    152
    Two-sided irradiation, of wire/cable, 163f
    INDEX 297U
    U-electront, 71
    72, 72f
    Ultralow-energy EB systems, 247
    Unsaturation, 214
    215
    Ushio America, 71
    72, 257
    258
    UV and EB radiations, 2
    comparison of, 3f
    UV-curable laminating adhesives, 195
    V
    Van de Graaff generator, 35
    36, 36f
    Vinylidene fluoride (VDF), 128
    129
    Vitons A, 128
    129
    Volatile organic compounds (VOC), 237
    Vulcanization, 113
    114, 154
    155
    W
    Wasik Associates, Inc, 257
    258
    Wire and cable technology, EB process in,
    150
    165
    equipment and processes, 153
    161
    extrusion, 153
    154
    radiation versus chemical cross-linking,
    155
    161
    vulcanization (cross-linking), 154
    155
    materials, 163
    165
    radiation equipment and process in,
    161
    163
    recent developments and trends, 165
    Wood-fiber-reinforced plastics
    (WFRPs), 201
    Wood-plastic composites (WPCs), 201
    World electron beam market, 152f
    X
    X-radiation, 4
    6, 72
    73
    X-rays, 1, 4
    6, 13, 72
    73
    298 INDEX

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