Welding Metallurgy – Second Edition

Welding Metallurgy – Second Edition
Sindo Kou
Professor and Chair Department of Materials Science and Engineering
University of Wisconsin
CONTENTS
Preface xiii
I INTRODUCTION 1
1 Fusion Welding Processes 3
1.1 Overview 3
1.2 Oxyacetylene Welding 7
1.3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 11
1.4 Gas–Tungsten Arc Welding 13
1.5 Plasma Arc Welding 16
1.6 Gas–Metal Arc Welding 19
1.7 Flux-Core Arc Welding 22
1.8 Submerged Arc Welding 22
1.9 Electroslag Welding 24
1.10 Electron Beam Welding 27
1.11 Laser Beam Welding 29
References 33
Further Reading 34
Problems 34
2 Heat Flow in Welding 37
2.1 Heat Source 37
2.2 Analysis of Heat Flow in Welding 47
2.3 Effect of Welding Parameters 53
2.4 Weld Thermal Simulator 58
References 60
Further Reading 62
Problems 62
3 Chemical Reactions in Welding 65
3.1 Overview 65
3.2 Gas–Metal Reactions 68
3.3 Slag–Metal Reactions 82
References 92
viiFurther Reading 95
Problems 95
4 Fluid Flow and Metal Evaporation in Welding 97
4.1 Fluid Flow in Arcs 97
4.2 Fluid Flow in Weld Pools 103
4.3 Metal Evaporation 114
4.4 Active Flux GTAW 116
References 117
Further Reading 119
Problems 120
5 Residual Stresses, Distortion, and Fatigue 122
5.1 Residual Stresses 122
5.2 Distortion 126
5.3 Fatigue 131
5.4 Case Studies 137
References 140
Further Reading 141
Problems 141
II THE FUSION ZONE 143
6 Basic Solidification Concepts 145
6.1 Solute Redistribution during Solidification 145
6.2 Solidification Modes and Constitutional Supercooling 155
6.3 Microsegregation and Banding 160
6.4 Effect of Cooling Rate 163
6.5 Solidification Path 166
References 167
Further Reading 168
Problems 169
7 Weld Metal Solidification I: Grain Structure 170
7.1 Epitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary 170
7.2 Nonepitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary 172
7.3 Competitive Growth in Bulk Fusion Zone 174
7.4 Effect of Welding Parameters on Grain Structure 174
7.5 Weld Metal Nucleation Mechanisms 178
7.6 Grain Structure Control 187
viii CONTENTSReferences 195
Further Reading 197
Problems 197
8 Weld Metal Solidification II: Microstructure within Grains 199
8.1 Solidification Modes 199
8.2 Dendrite and Cell Spacing 204
8.3 Effect of Welding Parameters 206
8.4 Refining Microstructure within Grains 209
References 213
Further Reading 213
Problems 214
9 Post-Solidification Phase Transformations 216
9.1 Ferrite-to-Austenite Transformation in Austenitic Stainless
Steel Welds 216
9.2 Austenite-to-Ferrite Transformation in Low-Carbon,
Low-Alloy Steel Welds 232
References 239
Further Reading 241
Problems 241
10 Weld Metal Chemical Inhomogeneities 243
10.1 Microsegregation 243
10.2 Banding 249
10.3 Inclusions and Gas Porosity 250
10.4 Inhomogeneities Near Fusion Boundary 252
10.5 Macrosegregation in Bulk Weld Metal 255
References 260
Further Reading 261
Problems 261
11 Weld Metal Solidification Cracking 263
11.1 Characteristics, Cause, and Testing 263
11.2 Metallurgical Factors 268
11.3 Mechanical Factors 284
11.4 Reducing Solidification Cracking 285
11.5 Case Study: Failure of a Large Exhaust Fan 295
References 296
Further Reading 299
Problems 299
CONTENTS ixIII THE PARTIALLY MELTED ZONE 301
12 Formation of the Partially Melted Zone 303
12.1 Evidence of Liquation 303
12.2 Liquation Mechanisms 304
12.3 Directional Solidification of Liquated Material 314
12.4 Grain Boundary Segregation 314
12.5 Grain Boundary Solidification Modes 316
12.6 Partially Melted Zone in Cast Irons 318
References 318
Problems 319
13 Difficulties Associated with the Partially Melted Zone 321
13.1 Liquation Cracking 321
13.2 Loss of Strength and Ductility 328
13.3 Hydrogen Cracking 328
13.4 Remedies 330
References 336
Problems 338
IV THE HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE 341
14 Work-Hardened Materials 343
14.1 Background 343
14.2 Recrystallization and Grain Growth in Welding 347
14.3 Effect of Welding Parameters and Process 349
References 351
Further Reading 352
Problems 352
15 Precipitation-Hardening Materials I: Aluminum Alloys 353
15.1 Background 353
15.2 Al–Cu–Mg and Al–Mg–Si Alloys 359
15.3 Al–Zn–Mg Alloys 367
15.4 Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys 370
References 371
Further Reading 372
Problems 372
16 Precipitation-Hardening Materials II: Nickel-Base Alloys 375
16.1 Background 375
x CONTENTS16.2 Reversion of Precipitate and Loss of Strength 379
16.3 Postweld Heat Treatment Cracking 384
References 390
Further Reading 392
Problems 392
17 Transformation-Hardening Materials: Carbon and
Alloy Steels 393
17.1 Phase Diagram and CCT Diagrams 393
17.2 Carbon Steels 396
17.3 Low-Alloy Steels 404
17.4 Hydrogen Cracking 410
17.5 Reheat Cracking 418
17.6 Lamellar Tearing 422
17.7 Case Studies 425
References 427
Further Reading 429
Problems 430
18 Corrosion-Resistant Materials: Stainless Steels 431
18.1 Classification of Stainless Steels 431
18.2 Austenitic Stainless Steels 433
18.3 Ferritic Stainless Steels 446
18.4 Martensitic Stainless Steels 449
18.5 Case Study: Failure of a Pipe 451
References 452
Further Reading 453
Problems 454
Index 455
CONTENTS xi
INDEX
Acicular ferrite, 66, 74, 88, 90, 233–239,
405
Alternating grain orientation, 291
Aluminum alloys,
Al-Li alloys, 80, 95, 188, 195, 354, 371,
374
designation, 355
filler metals, 183, 202, 251, 255, 285,
286, 291, 300, 303, 326, 328, 330, 332,
338, 339, 360, 362, 374
heat treatable, 353, 355, 359, 365–366,
369, 379
heat-affected zone softening, 352, 354,
373
partially melted zone cracking, 321,
334
partially melted zone liquation,
303–317, 330
porosity, 66, 80, 81, 95, 251, 259, 262,
353–354, 394
solidification cracking, 271, 273, 278,
281, 284–286, 288, 291, 294, 299, 300,
322, 330
typical welding problems, 354
Angular distortion, 5
Annealing, 343, 345, 346, 349, 369, 373,
374, 388, 408, 442, 447
Arc,
blow, 23, 34
efficiency, 37–41, 43, 46, 56, 63, 64, 319,
352, 373
fluid flow, 99–102
length, 113
oscillation, 188, 192–195, 210–212,
291–293, 300, 332, 338, 354
pulsation, 188, 193, 213, 300
stabilizers, 12
vibration, 192
Arc welding processes,
electroslag welding, 3, 6, 7, 24–27, 56,
393, 394, 406
flux-cored arc welding, 3, 6, 7, 22, 23,
36, 73, 79, 86, 88, 91
gas metal arc welding, 6, 19, 20, 32, 79
gas tungsten arc welding, 6, 13, 18, 28,
56, 67, 78
plasma arc welding, 3, 6, 17–19, 40, 42,
74, 80, 81, 354, 366
shielded metal arc welding, 3, 6, 11, 12,
66, 67, 75, 76
submerged arc welding, 3, 6, 22, 24, 90,
189, 238, 295
Argon, 14–16, 19, 31, 32, 70, 73, 193, 237
Artificial aging,
Al alloys, 353, 357, 359, 360, 363–367,
373
Ni-base alloys, 375, 376, 380
Austenite,
high-carbon, 401
retained, 399
stainless steel, 174
Autogenous welding, 16, 170, 285
Auto-tempered martensite, 406
Axial grains, 176, 178
Banding, 160, 163, 249–251
Basicity index, 85–89, 238
Bead shape, 294, 295
Bead tempering, 407, 408, 416
Bessel function, 50
Boundary layer, 153
Buoyancy force, 104, 107
Buttering, 289
Carbide-forming elements, 394
Carbide precipitation,
in austenitic stainless steels, 435–437,
440–444, 446
in ferritic steel, 421, 422
in Ni-base alloys, 378
Carbon equivalent, 394, 416, 417
Cell spacing, 165, 204–209, 213, 327 (see
also dendrite arm spacing)
Cellular solidification, 156, 160
Circular patch test, 323, 330, 386
Coarsening, 165
Columnar dendrites, 156, 157, 159
Competitive growth, 174, 176, 204
Convection (see weld pool convection
and arc fluid flow)
Constitution diagrams, 223–226
Constitutional liquation, 306, 309–311,
330, 333
Constitutional supercooling, 156–160,
186, 187, 199, 200, 247, 318
Contact angle, 170, 171
Continuous cooling transformation
diagrams, 232, 236, 393, 402, 404,
406, 407
Contraction stresses, 284, 424
Cooling rate, 164, 204, 207, 212, 226–231,
249, 268, 274, 278, 291, 318, 325, 350,
351, 360, 398, 402–407, 425, 432, 437,
441, 442, 448
Crack susceptibility C-curves,
Ni-base alloys, 387–390
ferritic steels, 422
Cracking,
cold, 411, 423
delayed, 411
hot, 321, 353, 354, 376, 379, 384, 432
hydrogen, 12, 66, 75, 255, 294, 321, 328,
329, 393, 402, 406–408, 410–418, 428,
432 (see hydrogen cracking)
fatigue, 135, 139
intergranular, 263, 328, 419, 422, 430
liquation, 324–327, 335, 336
reheat, 376, 385, 390, 394, 418–422, 430
(see reheat cracking)
solidification, 66, 71, 170, 188, 192, 195,
212, 216, 243, 259, 263–300, 322, 330,
338, 392, 432 (see solidification
cracking)
strain-age, 384, 385, 392
stress corrosion, 125, 255, 445, 446
toe, 135, 136, 413
underbead, 412, 413, 425, 426, 450 (see
also lamellar tearing)
Critical transformation temperatures,
393, 394, 398
Current density distribution, 99, 101–103
Degree of restraint, 284, 332
DeLong diagram, 224
Dendrite arm spacing, 164, 165, 204–213,
274
Dendrite fragmentation, 180, 181, 189,
192
Dendritic solidification, 156, 159
Dendrite tip undercooling, 230, 248
Deoxidizer, 12, 66, 394
Deposition rate, 26
Diffusion of hydrogen, 76, 411, 412
Dihedral angle, 281, 282
Dilution ratio, 257, 285, 286, 288, 289,
330
Direct-current electrode positive, 15, 16,
19, 23
Direct-current electrode negative, 14, 17,
19, 259
Directional solidification, 147, 314
Dissimilar metal welds, 29, 33, 223, 252,
255, 257, 259
Distortion in weldments, 4, 11, 24, 25, 29,
32, 126–130, 294, 367, 389, 439
Ductile-brittle transition temperature,
406
Ductility curve, 277
Easy-growth directions, 175
Electrodes, 408, 423, 424
bias, 27
flux-core arc welding, 22–24
gas-metal arc welding, 19, 21–22,
41–43, 53, 65, 80
gas-tungsten arc welding, 15, 16, 41–43,
104
high hydrogen, 415
low carbon, 288
low hydrogen, 394, 402, 407, 409, 415,
432
plasma arc welding, 17, 18, 74
submerged arc welding, 66, 91, 92
shielded metal arc welding, 75, 76, 78,
84, 295, 296, 401, 417
tip angle, 45–47, 97–100, 102
Electrode coverings, 11–13, 22, 66, 75, 78,
84, 415
Electromagnetic pool stirring, 191
Electron beam welding, 3, 5, 6, 27–29, 43,
173, 207, 208, 227, 229, 279, 295, 332,
351, 354
Electroslag welding, 3, 6, 7, 24–27, 56,
394, 406
Epitaxial growth, 170–174, 184, 203 (see
also nonepitaxial growth)
Equiaxed dendrites, 157 (see also
nondendritic equiaxed zone)
Equiaxed grains, 181–186, 191, 193
Equilibrium partition ratio or
equilibrium segregation ratio, 145,
146INDEX 457
Evaporation from weld pool, 28, 82, 91,
114, 115, 117
Fatigue, 131–140
beach marks, 132
extrusions, 131
intrusions, 131
joint design, 133
stress raisers, 134, 135
remedies, 135–137
Ferrite,
acicular, 66, 74, 88, 90, 233–239, 405
delta (d), 174, 216–223, 231, 232,
244–247, 279–281, 291, 295, 296, 431,
448, 449
grain boundary, 232, 233, 237, 239
side-plate, 233, 239, 398
Widmanstatten, 232, 233, 398
Ferrite content,
effect of cooling rate, 226–231
effect of multipass welding, 259
effect of nitrogen, 66, 71, 224
effect of reheating, 231
example of calculation, 290
prediction, 223–226
solidification cracking, 279, 289, 291
Ferrite morphology, 218–221, 259
Fluid flow (see weld pool convection and
arc fluid flow)
Flux core arc welding, 3, 6, 7, 22, 23, 36,
73, 79, 86, 88, 91
Fluxes, 22, 23, 67, 82–88, 90, 91, 94, 97,
116, 117
FNN-1999, 226
Free energy of nucleation, 170
Free energy of reactions, 68
Freezing range or solidification
temperature range, 158, 159,
268–271
Friction stir welding, 370
Gas metal arc welding, 6, 19, 20, 32, 79
Gas-metal reactions, 68–82
hydrogen-metal, 68, 75
nitrogen-metal, 68, 71
oxygen-metal, 68, 73
Sievert’s law, 68
Gas tungsten arc welding, 6, 13, 18, 28,
56, 67, 78
active flux, 116, 117
Gas welding, 3, 6, 7–11, 74
Gaussian distribution, 47, 57, 100, 101
Ghost grain boundary, 310, 311
Gleeble (thermal simulator), 58, 59, 184,
323, 419, 421
GP zone, 354–364
Grain boundary ferrite, 232, 233, 237, 239
Grain boundary liquid, 282
Grain boundary liquation, 303, 309, 313,
321, 325, 327, 332, 336
Grain boundary migration, 310, 314
Grain boundary segregation, 315, 316
Grain detachment, 180, 181
Grain growth, 236, 310, 343–352,
394–396, 405, 432, 448, 449
Grain growth inhibitors, 405
Grain refining,
in fusion zone, 170, 180, 187–193, 197,
291, 292, 394, 398, 402, 407
in heat-affected zone, 394, 397–399,
402, 403, 407
Grain size, 60, 189, 192, 235–239, 283,
333–335, 349, 398, 402, 405, 448
Grain structure, 170–195
effect of welding parameters, 174
control of, 187, 291
Growth rate, 166, 200, 201
Heat-affected zone softening,
Al alloys, 354, 373
Low alloy steels, 410
Ni-base alloys, 381–383
work-hardened materials, 343–351
Heat flow, 37–60
Adams equations, 51, 52
computer simulation, 54, 58
cooling rate, 55, 57
effect of preheating, 57
effect of welding parameters, 53
effect of weldment thickness, 57
Rosenthal’s equations, 48–51
Heat input, 4, 5, 41, 42, 332, 350, 351, 389
Heat source,
efficiency, 37–43
power-density distribution, 45, 57, 58,
107
current-density distribution, 47
Heat treatable alloy steels, 407
Heat treatable aluminum alloys, 353–371
Al-Cu-Mg, 359
Al-Mg-Si, 359
Al-Zn-Mg, 367
Heat treating of steels, 395
Helium, 14–16, 19, 31, 32
Heiple’s model, 109458 INDEX
Heterogeneous nucleation, 173, 180–199,
292
Heterogeneous nuclei, 181–184, 190, 234,
235
High-energy density welding processes, 3
electron beam welding, 27
laser beam welding, 29
Hot cracking in partially melted zone,
321–336 (see also liquation
cracking)
Hot ductility test, 323, 324
Houldcroft test, 264, 265
HY-80 steel, 207, 212, 255, 328, 329, 406
Hydrogen cracking, 12, 66, 75
in martensitic stainless steels, 432, 450
in steels, 255, 328–329, 402, 406–408,
410–418
methods of reduction, 415
requirements, 411
test methods, 414
Hydrogen level,
effect on welds, 66
free energy of reaction, 68
solubility in weld pool, 70
measurement of, 76–78
methods of reduction, 78–82
Implant test, 414
Inclusions, 66, 250, 251
fatigue initiation, 131
fracture initiation, 88
lamellar tearing, 422, 423, 427
liquation, 307–309
nitride, 72
nucleation site for acicular ferrite, 74,
233–237
oxide, 73, 88–90, 237
tungsten, 16
Inoculation, 188–190
Intergranular corrosion, 433, 436, 440,
442, 444, 447
Intergranular cracking,
hot cracking in partially melted zone
or liquation cracking, 321–327
hydrogen cracking, 328
postweld heat-treatment cracking or
reheat cracking, 385
reheat cracking, 418–422
solidification cracking, 263, 264
Interpass temperature, 57, 255, 256, 354,
369, 402, 405–409, 415, 416
Ionization potential, 15, 16
Iron nitride, 72
Isothermal precipitation curves, 436, 439
Isothermal transformation diagrams,
410
Joint design, 7, 8, 251
Keyhole, 4, 17, 18, 27, 28, 43, 74, 80, 81,
127, 354
Knife-line attack, 432, 440–444
Lamellar tearing, 394, 422–425, 427
Laser,
CO2 laser, 30, 31
diode laser, 31
YAG laser, 30, 108
Laser assisted gas metal arc welding, 32
Laser beam welding, 3, 6, 29, 30, 31, 36,
37, 60, 110, 128, 366
Laves, 276, 310
Lehigh cantilever test, 424
Lehigh restraint test, 414, 415,
Liquation, 303–336
constitutional, 306, 309–311, 319, 320,
330, 333
cracking, 321–327, 330–336 (see also
hot cracking in partially melted
zone)
mechanisms, 304–314
temperature, 333
Liquidus surface, 217
Lorentz force, 104, 106, 107
Lorentz force field, 99, 101
Low hydrogen electrodes, 12, 75, 409
Macrosegregation, 255–259
Magnesium, 74, 115, 116
Magnetic field, 190 (see also arc
oscillation)
Manganese, 76, 84, 92, 116
Manganese/sulfur ratio, 288, 394
Maraging steel, 307, 309, 310
Marangoni convection, 109, 110 (see also
weld pool convection)
Martensite,
auto-tempered, 406
formation temperature, 405, 411
high carbon, 399–401
microstructure, 400, 403, 426, 448, 450
tempering, 406, 449
Melting efficiency, 44INDEX 459
Mechanical properties
effect of annealing, 345
effect of ferrite content, 238, 279
effect of grain size, 187–188
effect o flux composition, 84
effect of inclusions and porosity, 250
effect of liquation, 329
effect of nitrogen content, 72
effect of oxygen content, 75, 89
effect of oxygen/acetylene ratio, 74
effect of porosity, 81
Mercury method, 77
Metal transfer, 19, 21, 22, 74, 116, 326
short-circuiting, 21
globular, 21
spray, 21
Microsegregation, 160–163, 232, 243–249,
268, 333, 334, 399, 401
Mushy zone, 179–182, 187, 275
Natural aging, 353, 359–365, 367–370
Ni-base alloys, 310, 375–390
compositions, 376
constitutional liquation, 309, 310
heat-affected zone softening, 376, 381,
383
partially-melted zone cracking or
liquation cracking, 335, 376
precipitation reaction, 376
reheat cracking, 376, 384–390
solidification cracking, 268–271,
273–276
typical welding problems, 376
Nitride formers, 66, 72, 405, 432
Nitrogen, 65–72, 224–226
Nondendritic equiaxed zone, 184, 185,
195
Nonepitaxial growth, 175
Nucleation in weld metal
mechanisms, 178–187
acicular ferrite, 233–235
heterogeneous (see also
heterogeneous nucleation)
Nuclei (see heterogeneous nuclei)
Oxyacetylene welding process, 3–11, 74
Oxygen/acetylene ratio, 74
Oxygen equivalence, 73
Oxygen equivalent, 237, 238
Oxygen level, 66–70, 73–76, 83, 87, 89, 91
effect of basicity index, 83, 87
effect on acicular ferrite, 235–238
effect on grain size, 236
effect of oxygen/acetylene ratio, 74
Partially grain refining, 396–403
Partially melted zone, 303–336
liquation cracking or hot cracking,
321–327
ductility loss, 328, 329, 354
hydrogen cracking, 328
liquation mechanism, 304–314
Partially mixed zone, 252
Phase diagrams,
Al-Cu, 306, 356
Al-Mg-Si, 331
Fe-Cr-Ni, 217, 220, 227, 434
Fe-C, 281, 318, 395, 434
Fe-Cr, 434
Fe-Cr-C, 447, 449
Ni-base, 377
304 stainless steel, 437
Phosphorus, 280
Planar solidification, 156, 159, 160, 316
Plasma arc welding, 3, 6, 17–19, 40, 42,
74, 80, 81, 354, 366
Polarity, 14, 15, 17, 19, 74, 80, 81, 91, 92,
354, 366
Pool shape, 54, 55
Porosity,
fatigue initiation, 131
in aluminum alloys, 66, 80, 81, 95, 252,
257, 259, 354
in copper, 82
in steel, 10, 28, 89, 90, 394
Post-solidification phase transformations,
ferrite-austenite, 216–232
austenite-ferrite, 232–239
Postweld heat treating,
Al alloys, 354, 363–370
effect on distortion, 130
steels, 79, 125, 127, 407–410, 416
Ni-base alloys, 384–386
stainless steels, 432, 439, 442, 450, 451
Postweld heat-treatment cracking,
384–390 (see also reheat cracking)
Powder metallurgy, 257
Power density, 3, 4, 11, 27, 28, 45 (see
also power density distribution)
Power density distribution, 45–47, 57, 58,
101–103, 107
Precipitation hardening, 353, 358, 359,
375, 379, 405
Preheat, 56, 57, 125, 130, 255, 256, 294,
394, 402, 404, 405–410, 415–417460 INDEX
Primary solidification phase, 166,
216–219, 230, 246, 279, 281, 291
Quenched and tempered steels, 127,
406–408
Reactive and refractory metals, 29
Recrystallization, 343–345, 347
Reheat cracking,
ferritic steels, 394, 418–422
Ni-base alloys, 376, 384–390
test methods, 419–420
Reinforcement, 7, 132, 134, 136, 137
Residual stresses, 122–126, 132–136, 378,
384–388, 417, 422, 445, 446
Resistance spot welds, 309, 439
Reversion, 360–364, 381, 382
Rimmed steels, 28
Root cracks, 413
Schaeffler diagram, 223, 255
Scheil equation, 151, 245, 274
Self-shielded arc welding, 66, 67, 72
Sensitization,
austenitic stainless steels, 433–440, 451,
452
effect of carbon content, 438, 439
ferritic stainless steels, 447
location in welds, 438
remedies, 439, 440
stabilized austenitic stainless steels,
441–444
Shear stress, 104
Shielded metal arc welding, 3, 6, 11, 12,
66, 67, 75, 76
Shielding gas,
argon, 19, 40, 47, 65, 70, 120, 326
Ar-CO2, 237
Ar-H2, 77, 95, 250, 255
Ar-N2, 71, 223, 241
Ar-O2, 21–22, 237, 415
CO2, 21, 65, 73
flux-core arc welding, 23
He-10%Ar, 32
He, 20, 65, 117
hydrogen containing, 78, 79
laser beam welding, 31
nitrogen, 71
properties, 16
oxygen containing, 73, 237–239
Shot peening, 135, 136
Silicon, 76, 92
Slag inclusions, 251
Slag-metal reactions, 82–92
Solidification cracking, 263–296, 330
Al alloys, 271, 273, 277–287, 291–293
control of, 285–295
effect of bead shape, 294, 295
effect of composition, 272, 273,
285–291
effect of ductility of solidifying weld
metal, 276–279
effect of grain boundary liquid,
271–276, 281–283
effect of grain structure, 283–284
effect of primary solidification phase,
279–281
effect of solidification temperature
range, 268–271
stainless steels, 66, 71, 212, 216, 432
steels, 394, 432
test methods, 264–267, 322
theories, 263
Solidification modes, 155–156, 159, 199,
200, 202–206, 216, 316–317
Solidification paths, 166, 167, 271
Solidification temperature range,
268–271 (see also freezing range)
Solidification time, 164
Solidus surface, 217
Solidus temperature, 331
Solute redistribution, 145–155, 162
Solution heat treating, 185, 312, 313, 353,
362
Split-anode method, 100
Stabilized austenitic stainless steels,
440–445
Stainless steels, 431–452
austenitic, 59, 172, 175, 178, 207, 208,
216–232, 244–246, 253–255, 267,
279–281, 336, 408, 417, 432–446, 451,
452
classification, 431, 432
duplex, 71
ferritic, 173, 175, 183, 184, 243, 268,
431, 446–449
martensitic, 244, 431, 432, 449–451
typical welding problems, 432
Steels, (see also stainless steels)
alloy steels, 19, 21, 83–85, 88, 232–239,
252, 253, 258, 259, 268–269, 288, 394,
404–417, 425
carbon steels, 5, 6, 10, 21, 50, 90, 127,
134, 135, 175, 234, 255, 281, 288,
396–404INDEX 461
cast steels, 401
ferritic steels, 418–422
heat treatable steels, 407–410
maraging steels, 307, 309, 310
quenched and tempered alloy steels,
127, 406–408
rimmed steels, 28
typical welding problems, 394
Stick welding, (see also shielded-metal
arc welding)
Stress corrosion cracking, 125, 445, 446
Stress raisers, 134–136, 294, 413
Stress relief, 125, 126, 136, 140, 385, 389,
409, 442, 446
Subgrain structure, 212
Submerged arc welding, 3, 6, 22, 24, 189,
238
Sulfur, 108–114, 280
Surface-active agent, 108–112
Surface nucleation, 181, 185, 193
Surface tension,
convection induced by, 104, 109, 110
(see also Maragoni convection)
of grain boundary liquid, 281, 282
temperature dependence of, 104, 105,
108–113, 117
Temperature gradient, 166, 186, 201
Tempering bead technique, 408
Titanium, 67, 73
Thermal cycles, 52–56
Thermal expansion coefficients, 284, 325,
419, 420, 445
Thermal properties, 50
Thermal simulator (Gleeble), 58, 59, 184,
323, 419, 421
Toe crack, 135, 413
Toughness, 72, 75, 89, 238
Underbead crack, 412, 425, 426, 450
Undercut, 20, 134–135, 207
Unmixed zone, 254
Vapor pressure, 82, 91, 115, 116
Varestraint test, 266, 267, 270, 276, 278,
321, 330, 332–334
Vinckier test, 419–420
Weld decay, 432–440 (see also
sensitization)
Weld pool,
evaporation, 114–116
electromagnetic stirring of, 188–192
shapes, 53–55, 112–114, 176 (see also
weld pool convection)
Weld pool convection, 103–114
driving forces, 104
effect on macrosegregation (weld pool
mixing), 243, 255, 257, 259
effect on nucleation, 180, 185
effect on penetration, 107–114
laminar flow, 114,
NaNO3, 109–111
turbulent flow, 114
Weld simulator, 58, 59
Welding positions, 9
Welding processes, 3, 6, 26, 66 (see also
arc welding processes)
Work-hardened materials, 343–354
WRC-1992 diagram, 225
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