The Effect of Sterilization on Plastics and Elastomers

The Effect of Sterilization on Plastics and Elastomers
Third Edition
Laurence McKeen
Contents
Preafce xi

1. Introduction to Food Irradiation and Medical Sterilization .1
   1.1. Pathogens .1
   1.1.1. Bacteria .1
   1.1.2. Viruses .3
   1.1.3. Endospores 3
   1.1.4. Other Infectious Agents 4
   1.1.4.1. Prions 4
   1.1.4.2. Helminthes 4
   1.1.4.3. Fungi: Molds and Yeasts 5
   1.1.4.4. Protozoans 5
   1.1.5. Biofilm 6
   1.2. Food-Borne Disease Control .6
   1.2.1. The History of Food Preservation 7
   1.2.2. The History of Food Irradiation .8
   1.2.3. Dosage Measures of Radiation .9
   1.2.4. Electron Beam Irradiator 9
   1.2.5. Gamma Irradiator 10
   1.2.6. X-Ray Irradiator 11
   1.2.7. Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation 12
   1.2.8. Microwave .14
   1.2.9. Infrared 14
   1.2.10. How Does Irradiation Destroy Bacteria? .15
   1.2.11. Doses of Radiation Required 15
   1.2.12. Dosimetry 16
   1.3. Medical Sterilization 16
   1.3.1. Sterilization, Disinfection, and Asepsis .17
   1.3.2. Thermal Methods of Sterilization 18
   1.3.2.1. Steam Sterilization/Autoclave 18
   1.3.2.2. Flash Sterilization .20
   1.3.2.3. Dry Heat Sterilization 20
   1.3.2.4. Glass Bead Sterilizer 21
   1.3.2.5. Microwave 21
   1.3.2.6. IR Radiation .21
   1.3.3. Chemical Disinfectants e Liquids .22
   1.3.3.1. Alcohol 22
   1.3.3.2. Chlorine and Chlorine Compounds 23
   1.3.3.3. Liquid Formaldehyde 25
   1.3.3.4. Glutaraldehyde 26
   1.3.3.5. Hydrogen Peroxide .26
   1.3.3.6. Iodophors 27
   1.3.3.7. Ortho-Phthalaldehyde .27
   1.3.3.8. Peracetic Acid .28
   1.3.3.9. Peracetic Acid and Hydrogen Peroxide .28
   v1.3.3.10. Phenolics .29
   1.3.3.11. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds .30
   1.3.3.12. Surfacine .30
   1.3.3.13. Controlling Biofilm .30
   1.3.4. Gas and Vapor Sterilizing .31
   1.3.4.1. Ethylene Oxide Sterilization 31
   1.3.4.2. Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide .33
   1.3.4.3. Low-Temperature Hydrogen Peroxide Gas Plasma 33
   1.3.4.4. Formaldehyde Gaseous Sterilization .34
   1.3.4.5. Formaldehyde Steam 34
   1.3.4.6. Ozone 35
   1.3.4.7. Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide .35
   1.3.4.8. Vaporized Peracetic Acid .35
   1.3.5. Ionizing Radiation 36
   1.3.5.1. UV Radiation .36
   1.4. Bioterrorism .36
   1.5. Summary 39
   References 39
2. Introduction to Plastics and Polymers .41
   2.1. Polymerization .41
   2.1.1. Addition Polymerization .41
   2.1.2. Condensation Polymerization .41
   2.2. Copolymers 42
   2.3. Linear, Branched, and Cross-Linked Polymers .43
   2.4. Polarity .43
   2.5. Unsaturation .44
   2.6. Steric Hindrance .45
   2.7. Isomers .45
   2.7.1. Structural Isomers .45
   2.7.2. Geometric Isomers 45
   2.7.3. Stereosiomers e Syndiotactic, Isotactic, and Atactic 46
   2.8. Inter- and Intramolecular Attractions in Polymers .46
   2.8.1. Hydrogen Bonding 47
   2.8.2. Van der Waals Forces .47
   2.8.3. Chain Entanglement .48
   2.9. General Classifications .48
   2.9.1. Molecular Weight .48
   2.9.2. Thermosets vs. Thermoplastics 49
   2.9.3. Crystalline vs. Amorphous .49
   2.9.4. Orientation 50
   2.10. Plastic Compositions 50
   2.10.1. Polymer Blends . 50
   2.10.2. Elastomers . 51
   2.10.3. Additives . 51
   2.10.3.1. Fillers, Reinforcement, Composites 51
   2.10.3.2. Combustion Modifiers, Fire, Flame Retardants, and Smoke Suppressants .52
   2.10.3.3. Release Agents 52
   2.10.3.4. Slip Additives/Internal Lubricants 53
   2.10.3.5. Antiblock Additives 53
   2.10.3.6. Catalysts 53
   2.10.3.7. Impact Modifiers and Tougheners 54
   2.10.3.8. Radiation Stabilizers .54
   2.10.3.9. Optical Brighteners .54
   2.10.3.10. Plasticizers .54
   vi CONTENTS2.10.3.11. Pigments, Extenders, Dyes, and Mica 55
   2.10.3.12. Coupling Agents 55
   2.10.3.13. Thermal Stabilizers .55
   2.10.3.14. Antistats .55
   2.11. Summary 55
   References 55
3. Introduction to the Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of Plastics and Elastomers .57
   3.1. Physical Property Testing 57
   3.1.1. Specific Gravity or Density 57
   3.1.2. Appearance: Color, Haze, and Gloss .58
   3.1.2.1. Color .58
   3.1.2.2. Gloss Measurement 59
   3.1.2.3. Haze Measurement .61
   3.1.2.4. Yellowness Index 61
   3.2. Mechanical Testing of Plastics 62
   3.2.1. Tensile Properties .64
   3.2.2. Rigidity of Plastics Materials .67
   3.2.3. Shear Properties 68
   3.2.4. Flexural Properties 70
   3.2.5. Puncture and Impact Properties .70
   3.2.5.1. High-Speed Puncture Test 71
   3.2.5.2. Drop Dart Impact Test for Plastics Film .72
   3.2.5.3. Izod Impact Strength and Charpy Impact Strength .73
   3.2.5.4. Gardner and Falling Dart Impact Strength 73
   3.2.6. Tear Properties 75
   3.2.6.1. Elmendorf Tear Strength 75
   3.2.6.2. Trouser Tear Resistance .76
   3.2.7. Toughness .76
   3.3. Thermal Property Testing of Plastics 77
   3.3.1. Melt Flow Index .77
   3.3.2. Heat Deflection Temperature 79
   3.3.3. Vicat Softening Temperature 79
   3.3.4. Melting Point (Tm) 80
   3.3.5. Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) .80
   3.3.5.1. Mechanical Methods of Estimating Tg 81
   3.3.5.2. Thermal Mechanical Analysis .81
   3.3.5.3. Thermal Methods of Estimating Tg .82
   References 84
4. Styrenic Plastics .85
   4.1. AcrylonitrileeButadieneeStyrene Copolymer .85
   4.2. MethacrylateeAcrylonitrileeButadieneeStyrene Copolymer .92
   4.3. Polystyrene .92
   4.3.1. General-Purpose or Crystal Polystyrene 92
   4.3.2. High-Heat Crystal Polystyrene .103
   4.3.3. Syndiotactic Polystyrene 103
   4.3.4. High-Impact Polystyrene 103
   4.4. SAN Copolymer .103
   4.5. StyreneeButadiene Copolymers .110
   References 132
5. Polyesters 133
   5.1. Liquid Crystalline Polymers 133
   5.2. Polybutylene Terephthalate 135
   CONTENTS vii5.3. Polycarbonate .135
   5.4. Polyethylene Terephthalate 140
   5.5. Polycyclohexylene-Dimethylene Terephthalate 141
   5.6. Copolyesters .159
   5.7. Polyethylene Naphthalate 166
   5.8. Polyphthalate Carbonate 167
   References 167
6. Polyimides .169
   6.1. Polyamide-Imide 169
   6.2. Polyetherimide .170
   6.3. Polyimide .174
   References 182
7. Polyamides (Nylons) .183
   7.1. Polyamide 6 (Nylon 6) 184
   7.2. Polyamide 11 (Nylon 11) 185
   7.3. Polyamide 12 (Nylon 12) 187
   7.4. Polyamide 66 (Nylon 66) 188
   7.5. Polyarylamide 188
   7.6. Copolymers/Terpolymers .192
   References 198
8. Polyolefins .201
   8.1. Polyethylene .201
   8.1.1. Ultra Low-Density polyethylene 202
   8.1.2. Linear Low-Density Polyethylene 202
   8.1.3. Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) .203
   8.1.4. High-Density Polyethylene .203
   8.1.5. Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene .213
   8.2. Polypropylene 215
   8.3. Poly-4-Methyl-1-Pentene .221
   8.4. Cyclic Olefin Copolymer .225
   8.5. Plastomer 225
   References 226
9. Polyvinyls and Acrylics .227
   9.1. EthyleneeVinyl Acetate Copolymer .227
   9.2. EthyleneeVinyl Alcohol Copolymer 228
   9.3. Polyvinyl Chloride .231
   9.4. Polyvinylidene Chloride 234
   9.5. Polyacrylics 239
   9.5.1. Homopolymer .240
   9.5.2. Acrylic Copolymer .240
   9.5.3. Acrylic Terpolymer .240
   9.6. AcrylonitrileeMethyl Acrylate Copolymer 253
   9.7. Ionomers .253
   References 258
10. Fluoropolymers .261
    10.1. Polytetrafluoroethylene .262
    10.2. Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene .264
    10.3. Perfluoroalkoxy .265
    10.3.1. PFA . 267
    10.3.2. MFA . 268
    10.4. Amorphous Fluoropolymer e Teflon AF
    268
    viii CONTENTS10.5. Polyvinyl Fluoride 269
    10.6. Polychlorotrifluoroethylene 270
    10.7. Polyvinylidene Fluoride 271
    10.8. EthyleneeTetrafluoroethylene Copolymer .274
    10.9. EthyleneeChlorotrifluoroethylene Copolymer 275
    References .276
11. High-Temperature/High-Performance Polymers 277
    11.1. Polyether Ether Ketone .277
    11.2. Polyaryletherketone 277
    11.3. Polyphenylene Sulfide 282
    11.4. Polysulfone 284
    11.5. Polyphenylsulfone .285
    11.6. Polyethersulfone 292
    11.7. Parylene (Poly(p-Xylylene)) .296
    11.8. Polyoxymethylene (Acetal Homopolymer)/Polyoxymethylene Copolymer (Acetal Copolymer) 300
    11.9. Self-Reinforced Polymers .301
    References .304
12. Renewable Resource and Biodegradable Polymers 305
    12.1. Polyanhydrides 309
    12.2. Cellophane .309
    12.3. Nitrocellulose 310
    12.4. Ethyl Cellulose (Hydroxyethylcellulose) .311
    12.5. Polycaprolactone .311
    12.6. Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) and Poly L-Lactic Acid (PLLA) .311
    12.7. Poly-3-Hydroxybutyrate .313
    12.8. Polyglycolic Acid .315
    References .317
13. Elastomers .319
    13.1. Thermoplastic Polyether Block Polyamide Elastomers (TPA-ET or PEBA) 320
    13.2. Thermoplastic Copolyester Elastomers (TPC-E or COPE) .320
    13.3. Olefinic Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPO) .322
    13.4. Styrenic Block Copolymer Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPS) .325
    13.5. Thermoplastic Polyurethane Elastomers (TPU) .331
    13.6. Polysiloxane/Silicone Rubber .339
    References .352
    Index .
    Index
    Page references followed by “f” indicate figure, and “t” indicate table.
    A
    Acetal copolymer, see Polyoxymethylene copolymer
    Acetal homopolymer, see Polyoxymethylene
    Acrylic copolymer, 240
    beta radiation resistance of, 247f, 248f, 249f
    EtO resistance of, 245t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 245t, 246f, see also Copolymers
    Acrylic homopolymer, 240
    gamma radiation resistance of, 241t, 242f, 243f
    Acrylic terpolymer, 240e249
    Acrylonitrileebutadieneestyrene (ABS) copolymer, 85e92
    chemical structure of, 85f
    electron beam radiation resistance of, 87, 89t, 98f, 99f
    EtO resistance of, 87, 89t, 90t, 91t, 92t, 93t, 94t, 99f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 86e87, 86t, 87t, 88t, 89t, 95f,
    96f, 97f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 86
    regulatory status of, 87
    sterile applications of, 86
    uses of, 86, see also Copolymers
    Acrylonitrileemethyl acrylate (AMA) copolymer,
    253
    structure of, 253f, see also Copolymers
    Addition polymerization, 41, 42f, see also Polymerization
    Additives, 51e55
    Adipic acid, chemical structure of, 184f
    Alcohol, 22e23
    microbiocidal activity of, 23
    mode of action, 22e23, 23f
    uses of, 23
    Alkene, 201
    Alkyl didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, 30
    Alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, 30
    Amino acids, chemical structure of, 184f
    Aminolauric acid, 194f
    chemical structure of, 184f
    Aminoundecanoic acid, chemical structure of, 184f
    Amylmetacresol, 29, 29f
    Antiblock additives, 53, 54f
    Antistats, 55
    Asepsis, 17e18
    Atactic polypropene, 46, 47f, see also Polypropene
    Autoclave
    gravity displacement steam, 19f
    steam, 18e20
    advantages of, 20
    disadvantages of, 20
    mode of action, 19
    operating parameters for, 20t
    uses of, 20
    B
    Bacteria, 1e2, 1f
    cholera, 2f
    classification of, 2
    irradiation effects on, 15
    morphologies, 2f
    Becquerel, Antoine-Henri, 8e9
    Benzalkonium chloride compounds, chemical structure of, 30f
    Benzene (C6H6), unsaturation of, 44
    Benzene-1,3-dicarboxylic acid, chemical structure of, 134f
    Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid, chemical structure of, 134f
    Benzene-1,4-diol, chemical structure of, 134f
    Biofilm, 6
    controlling, 30e31
    Biopolymers, sterilization of, 308t
    Bioterrorism, 36e39
    agents, 39
    Bipnenol diamine (BPD), chemical structure of, 175f
    Bis(p-aminocyclohexyl)methane acid, chemical structure of, 184f
    4,4’-Bisphenol A dianhydride (BPADA)
    chemical structure of, 174f
    -DDS polyetherimide sulfone, chemical structure of, 173f
    -MPD polyetherimide, chemical structure of, 174f
    -PMDA-MPD copolyetherimide, chemical structure of, 174f
    -PPD polyetherimide, chemical structure of, 173f
    Bisphenol diamine PMDA polyetherimide, chemical structure of, 173f
    Blanching, 8
    Branched polymer, 43
    “Bruceton Staircase” method, 72e73
    C
    Canning, 8
    Caprolactam, chemical structure of, 184f
    Carbothane, 334
    Catalysts, 53
    Cellophane
    , 309e310
    structure of, 310f
    Chain entanglement, 48
    Chain-growth polymerization, see Addition polymerization
    Charpy impact strength, 73, 74f, 74t, see also Impact strength testing
    Chemical pickling, 7
    Chloramine-T, 24, 24f
    Chlorine, 23e25
    Chlorine dioxide (ClO2), 24
    gaseous, 35
    modes of action, 24
    uses of, 24
    Chloroxylenol, 29, 29f
    Cis-isomers, 46f
    Clostridium botulinum, 1
    355Cobalt-60, 10e11, 12f
    Cold storage, 8
    Color, 58e59
    Combustion modifiers, 52
    Composites, 51e52
    Condensation polymerization, 41e42, 42f, see also Polymerization
    Copolyesters, 159e160
    beta radiation resistance of, 164f, 165f, 166f
    chemical sterilization of, 160, 163t
    chemical structure of, 160f
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 160, 161t, 162t
    EtO resistance of, 160, 162t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 160, 161t, 164f
    manufacturers of, 160
    sterile end uses of, 160
    Copolymers, 41
    acrylic, 240
    acrylonitrileebutadieneestyrene, see
    Acrylonitrileebutadieneestyrene copolymer
    acrylonitrileemethyl acrylate, 253
    alternating, 42, 42f
    block, 42, 42f
    cyclic olefin, see Cyclic olefin copolymer
    ethyleneeacrylic acid, 253, 254f
    ethyleneechlorotrifluoroethylene, 275e276, 275f, 276t
    ethyleneetetrafluoroethylene, 274e275, 275f
    ethyleneevinyl acetate, 227e228, 227f, 228f
    ethyleneevinyl alcohol, see Ethyleneevinyl alcohol copolymer
    graft, 42f, 43
    impact, 215e217
    methacrylateeacrylonitrileebutadieneestyrene, 85f, 85t, 92
    random, 42, 42f
    styreneeacrylonitrile, see Styreneeacrylonitrile copolymer
    styreneebutadiene, see Styreneebutadiene copolymers, see also
    Polymers
    Coupling agents, 55
    Critical equipment/device, 18t
    Cross-linked polymer, 43
    Cryptobia species, 5
    Cryptosporidium, 5
    Crystal polystyrene, high-heat, 103, see Polystyrene
    Curie, Marie, 8e9
    Curie, Pierre, 8e9
    Cyclic olefin copolymer (COC), 225
    film grades of, 225
    manufacturers and trade names of, 225
    radiation resistance of, 225
    sterile applications of, 225
    uses of, 225, see also Copolymers
    1,4-Cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM), chemical structure of, 160f
    Cyclospora, 5
    D
    Density, 57
    Diacid, chemical structure of, 184f
    Dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, 30
    Diamines, chemical structure of, 184f
    1,4-Diaminobutane, chemical structure of, 184f
    Diamino diphenyl sulfone (DDS), chemical structure of, 175f
    3,3’-Dimethyl-4,4’-diaminodicyclohexylmethane, 194f
    Dipole, 43
    Dipole moment, 43, 44t
    Disinfection, 17e18
    Spaulding’s classification of, 18t
    1,12 Dodecanediotic acid, chemical structure of, 184f
    Domagk, Gerhard, 16e17
    Dosimetry, 16
    Drop dart impact test, for plastic films, 72e73, 72f, see also Impact
    strength testing
    Dry heat sterilization, 20e21
    advantages of, 21
    disadvantages of, 21
    forced-air, 20
    mode of action, 21
    static-air, 20
    timeetemperature relationships for, 20
    Drying, 7
    Dyes, 55
    Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), 81
    E
    Ehrlich, Paul, 16e17
    Elastomer(s), 51, 319e354
    olefinic thermoplastic elastomers, 322e325
    polysiloxane/silicone rubber, 339e347
    styrenic block copolymer thermoplastic elastomers, 325e331
    tests, 63t, 64t
    thermoplastic copolyester elastomers, 320e321
    thermoplastic elastomers, 319, 319f
    thermoplastic polyether block polyamide elastomers, 320
    thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers, 331e334
    Electron beam irradiator, 9e10, 10f, 11f
    Elmendorf tear strength, 75, 75f
    Elongation to puncture, 71e72
    Endospores, 3e4
    structure of, 3e4, 3f
    Energy to puncture, 72
    Enterocytozoon bieneusi, 5
    Escherichia coli, 1
    Ethyl cellulose, 311
    structure of, 310f
    Ethylene (C2H4)
    chemical structure of, 201f
    unsaturation of, 44
    Ethyleneeacrylic acid (EAA) copolymer, 253
    structure of, 254f, see also Copolymers
    Ethyleneechlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE) copolymer, 275e276
    gamma radiation resistance of, 276t
    structure of, 275f, see also Copolymers
    Ethylene glycol (EG), chemical structure of, 160f
    Ethylene oxide (EtO)
    resistance
    of acrylic copolymer, 245t
    of acrylonitrileebutadieneestyrene copolymer, 87, 89t, 90t, 91t,
    92t, 93t, 94t, 99f
    of copolyesters, 160, 162t
    of high-density polyethylene, 207, 209t, 210t
    of linear low-density polyethylene, 203, 204t
    of olefinic thermoplastic elastomers, 325t
    of polyamide 66 (nylon 66), 189t, 190t
    of polyaryletherketone, 281f
    of polybutylene terephthalate, 139t
    of polycarbonate, 137e138, 147t, 148t, 149t, 150t, 151t, 152t, 153t
    of polyether ether ketones, 278f, 279f
    of polyetherimide, 170
    of poly l-lactic acid, 315f
    of polyphenylsulfone, 293f
    of polypropylene, 218t, 219t, 221f
    of polysiloxane/silicone rubber, 351f, 352f
    of polystyrene, 101, 102t, 104t, 105t, 106t, 111t, 112t, 113f, 114f,
    115f
    of polysulfone, 287f
    356 INDEXof polyvinyl chloride, 236t
    of self-reinforced polymers, 302f
    of styreneeacrylonitrile copolymer, 105, 117t, 118t, 119t, 121f
    of styreneebutadiene copolymers, 110, 129t, 130t, 131t
    of thermoplastic elastomers, 332t
    of thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers, 343t, 344t, 345t
    of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene, 213, 213t
    sterilization, 31e33
    advantages of, 32
    degassing stage, 32
    disadvantages of, 33
    modes of action, 32
    preconditioning stage, 31
    sterilizer stage, 31e32
    uses of, 32
    Ethyleneetetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) copolymer, 274e275
    gamma radiation resistance of, 275f
    structure of, 275f, see also Copolymers
    Ethyleneevinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer, 227e228
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 228f
    structure of, 227f, see also Copolymers
    Ethyleneevinyl alcohol (EVOH) copolymer, 228e231
    beta radiation resistance of, 231t
    formation and structure of, 228f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 231t
    nonirradiated (NIR), 230t, see Copolymers
    Extenders, 55
    F
    Falling dart impact strength, 73e75, see also Impact strength testing
    Fermentation pickling, 7
    Fire retardants, 52
    Flame retardants, 52
    Flash sterilization, 20
    Flexural properties, 70, 71f
    Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), 264e265
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 266f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 266f
    structure of, 265f
    three-dimensional representation of, 265f
    Fluoroplastics, melting point, 262t
    Fluoropolymers, 261e276
    ethyleneechlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, 275e276
    ethyleneetetrafluoroethylene copolymer, 274e275
    fluorinated ethylene propylene, 264e265
    perfluoroalkoxy, 265e268
    polychlorotrifluoroethylene, 270
    polytetrafluoroethylene, 262e264
    polyvinyl fluoride, 269e270
    polyvinylidene fluoride, 271
    poststerilization, performance of, 262t
    sterilization capabilities of, 262t
    structure of, 261f
    Teflon AF, 268
    Food-borne disease control, 6e16
    dosimetry, 16
    electron beam irradiation, 9e10
    food irradiation, dosage measures of, 9
    food irradiation, history of, 8e9
    food preservation, history of, 7e8
    gamma radiation, 10e11
    infrared heating, 14e15
    irradiation effects, on bacteria, 15
    microwave sterilization, 14
    radiation dose, 15e16
    ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, 12e14
    X-ray Irradiation, 11e12
    Food irradiation
    dosage measures of, 9
    history of, 8e9
    Food preservation, history of, 7e8
    Formaldehyde
    gaseous sterilization, 34, 34f
    liquid, 25e26
    alkylation by, 25f
    modes of action, 25
    uses of, 25e26
    steam, 34e35
    advantages of, 35
    disadvantages of, 35
    Fungi, 5
    G
    Gamma radiator, 10e11, 13f
    Gardner impact strength, 73e75, 74f, see also Impact strength testing
    Gas and vapor sterilizing, 31e36
    Gaseous chlorine dioxide, 35, see also Chlorine dioxide
    General-purpose polystyrene (GPPS), 92, see Polystyrene
    Geometric isomers, 45e46, 46f
    Giardia, 5
    Glass bead sterilizer, 21, 21f
    Glass transition temperature, 80e84
    mechanical estimation methods for, 81
    thermal estimation methods for, 82e84
    thermal mechanical analysis of, 81e82
    Gloss measurement, 59e61
    Glutaraldehyde, 26
    advantages of, 26
    chemical structure of, 26f
    disadvantages of, 26
    modes of action, 26
    uses of, 26
    Gram negative bacteria, 2, 2f, see also Bacteria
    Gram positive bacteria, 2, 2f, see also Bacteria
    Graphite, 53
    Gravity displacement steam autoclave, 19f, see Autoclave
    Gray and rad units conversion, 9t
    Grilamid TR55 amorphous polyamide, 192, 194f
    characteristics of, 195
    gamma radiation resistance, 195t, 196f, 197f, 198f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 195
    sterile applications of, 195
    uses of, 195
    H
    Hardness tests, 63t
    Haze measurement, 61
    Head-to-tail isomers, 46f
    Heat deflection temperature, 79
    test apparatus, 77f
    Helminthes, 4
    Hexachlorophene, 29, 29f
    1,6-Hexamethylene diamine, chemical structure of, 184f
    High-density polyethylene (HDPE), 203e213
    beta radiation resistance of, 209t
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 208t, 209t
    EtO resistance of, 207, 209t, 210t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 206e207, 206t, 207t
    manufacturers and trade names of, 204
    plasma/hydrogen resistance of, 207e213
    steam resistance of, 207
    INDEX 357High-density polyethylene (HDPE) (Continued)
    sterile applications of, 204
    sterilization resistance of, 204e206, see also Polyethylene
    High-heat crystal polystyrene, 103, see also Polystyrene
    High-impact polystyrene (HIPS), 43, 103
    structure of, 114f, see also Polystyrene
    Homopolymers, 215, 217, 263
    Hookworm parasites, 4f
    Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), 32
    Hydrogen bonding, 47, 47f
    Hydrogen peroxide, 26, 28e29
    advantages of, 26
    disadvantages of, 26
    gas plasma, low-temperature, 33e34
    advantages of, 34
    disadvantages of, 34
    effect on polyetherimide sterilization, 177t
    modes of action, 34
    uses of, 34
    modes of action, 26
    plus peracetic acid, 28e29, 28f
    vaporized, 33
    4-Hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA), chemical structure of, 134f
    6-Hydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylic acid, chemical structure of, 134f
    4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)phenol, chemical structure of, 134f
    Hypochlorites, 23e24
    I
    Illuminant, 58
    Imide group formation, 169f
    Impact copolymers, 215e217, see also Copolymers
    Impact modifiers, 54
    Impact strength testing, 63t
    charpy, 73, 74f, 74t
    drop dart, 72e73, 72f
    falling dart, 73e75
    gardner, 73e75, 74f
    izod, 73, 74f, 74t
    pendulum-type, 73f
    Infrared heating, 14e15
    Infrared radiation, 21
    Instron Universal Materials Testing Machine, 65e66, 66f, 68e70
    Internal lubricants, 53
    Iodophors, 27
    modes of action, 27
    uses of, 27
    Ionizing radiation, 8e9
    sterilization by, 36
    Ionomers, 253e258
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 255t, 256t, 257f, 257t, 258f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 254t, 255t
    Isomers, 45e46
    geometric, 45e46
    stereosiomers, 46
    structural, 45
    Isophthalic acid, 194f
    chemical structure of, 160f, 184f
    Isospora, 5
    Isotactic polypropene, 46, 47f, see also Polypropene
    Izod impact strength, 73, 74f, 74t, see also Impact strength testing
    K
    Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert, 16e17
    Kosan, Idemitsu, 103
    L
    Lactide dimer, structure of, 312f
    Laurolactam, 194f
    Light source, 58
    Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), 201e203
    EtO resistance of, 203, 204t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 203, 203t
    manufacturers and trade names of, 203
    sterile applications of, 203, see also Polyethylene
    Linear polymer, 43
    Liquid chemical disinfectants, 22e31
    alcohol, 22e23
    biofilm, controlling, 30e31
    chlorine, 23e25
    chlorine compounds, 23e25
    glutaraldehyde, 26
    hydrogen peroxide, 26, 28e29
    inhibition of metabolism, 22
    iodophors, 27
    liquid formaldehyde, 25e26
    membrane disruption, 22
    nucleic acid damage, 22
    ortho-phthalaldehyde, 27
    peracetic acid, 28e29
    phenolics, 29e30
    protein denaturation, 22, 22f
    quaternary ammonium compounds, 30
    Surfacine, 30
    Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs), 133e135
    gamma radiation resistance of, 133, 135t
    manufacturers and trade names of, 133
    regulatory status of, 134e135
    steam sterilization resistance of, 134, 136f, 137f
    sterile applications of, 133
    uses of, 133, see also Polymers
    Lister, Joseph, 17, 29
    Listeria monocytogenes, 17
    Listerine mouthwash, 17
    Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 201, 203
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 205f, 206f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 204f, 205f, 206f, see also Polyethylene
    Low-temperature hydrogen peroxide gas, beta radiation resistance of,
    243f, 244f, 245f
    Lucite International, 240
    M
    Mechanical testing, of plastics, 62e77, 62t, 65t
    Medical device packaging
    ASTM tests for, 31
    goals of, 31
    Medical sterilization, 16e36
    gas and vapor sterilizing, 31e36
    by ionizing radiation, 36
    liquid chemical disinfectants, 22e31
    thermal methods of, 18e21
    Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE), 201, see also Polyethylene
    Melt flow index (MFI), 77e79
    determination of, recommended conditions for, 78t
    test apparatus, 76f
    Melting point, 80
    Methacrylateeacrylonitrileebutadieneestyrene (MABS) copolymer,
    92
    electron beam radiation resistance of, 100t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 100f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 92
    358 INDEXsterile applications of, 92, see also Copolymers
    Methylene dianiline (MDA), chemical structure of, 175f
    4-Methylpentene-1, 201
    chemical structure of, 201f
    MFA, 268
    Mica, 55
    Microwave sterilization, 14, 15f, 21
    Molar-mass dispersity index, 48e49
    Molds, 5
    Molecular weight, 48e49
    Molybdenum disulfide, 53
    m-Phenyne diamine (MPD), chemical structure of, 175f
    N
    Naegleria fowleri, 5
    Naphthalene-2,6-dicarboxylic acid (NDA), chemical structure of, 134f
    Nitrocellulose, 310e311
    structure of, 310f
    Noncritical equipment/device, 18t
    Norbornene, chemical structure of, 201f
    Nylons, see Polyamides
    O
    Olefin, see Alkene
    Olefinic thermoplastic elastomers (TPO), 322e325
    EtO resistance of, 325t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 324t, 326f, 327f, 328f
    steam resistance of, 325t, 326t, 328f, 329f, 330f
    Optical brighteners, 54
    Ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA), 27
    advantages of, 27
    disadvantages of, 27
    modes of action, 27
    uses of, 27
    Oxydianiline, chemical structure of, 175f
    Ozone sterilization, 35
    advantages of, 35
    disadvantages of, 35
    P
    Paraformaldehyde, 34, see also Formaldehyde
    Parylene, 296e298
    sterilization methods of, 299t
    structure of, 298f
    Pasteur, Louis, 17
    Pathogens, 1e6
    associated with food-borne illness, 6t, 7t
    bacteria, 1e2
    biofilm, 6
    endospores, 3e4
    fungi, 5
    helminthes, 4
    molds, 5
    prions, 4
    protozoans, 5
    viruses, 3
    yeasts, 5
    Penicillium, 5f
    Peracetic acid (PAA), 28e29
    advantages of, 28
    disadvantages of, 28
    modes of action, 28
    plus hydrogen peroxide, 28e29, 28f
    vaporized, 35e36
    Perfluoroalkoxy (PFA), 265e268
    comonomers, 267t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 268f
    radiation, 267t
    structure of, 267f
    three-dimensional representation of, 267f
    Perfluoropolyether synthetic oil, 53
    Phenolics, 29e30
    chemical structure of, 29f
    modes of action, 30
    uses of, 30
    2-Phenylphenol, 29, 29f
    Physical property testing, 57e62
    color, 58e59
    density, 57
    gloss measurement, 59e61
    haze measurement, 61
    specific gravity, 57
    Pigments, 55
    Plasmodium, 5
    Plastic films, drop dart impact test for, 72e73, 72f
    Plasticizers, 54
    Plastics
    amorphous, 49e50
    compositions, 50e55
    crystalline, 49e50
    materials, rigidity of, 67e68, 69f
    mechanical testing of, 62e77, 62t, 65t
    thermal property testing of, 77e84
    thermoplastics, 49
    thermosets, 49
    Plastomers (POP), 225e226
    Pleistophora species, 5
    Polar bond, 43
    Polarity, 43e44
    Polyacrylics, 239e249
    acrylic copolymer, 240
    acrylic homopolymer, 240
    acrylic terpolymer, 240e249
    Polyamide 6 (nylon 6), 184e185
    characteristics of, 185
    chemical structure of, 184f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 185
    properties after EtO sterilization, 185t
    sterile applications of, 185
    sterilization vs non-sterilization methods, creep compliances of, 186f
    tensile strength after autoclave sterilization, 185f
    uses of, 185
    Polyamide 11 (nylon 11), 185e187
    characteristics of, 186
    chemical structure of, 186f
    dry heat sterilization cycles of
    flexural modulus versus, 187f
    tensile modulus versus, 187f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 187
    sterile applications of, 187
    uses of, 187
    Polyamide 12 (nylon 12), 187e188
    characteristics of, 187e188
    chemical structure of, 188f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 188
    sterile applications of, 188
    uses of, 188
    Polyamide 66 (nylon 66), 188e189
    characteristics of, 188
    chemical structure of, 188f
    electron beam radiation dose
    INDEX 359Polyamide 66 (nylon 66) (Continued)
    versus elastic modulus retained, 191f
    versus elongation at break retained, 191f
    versus impact strength, 191f
    versus tensile strength retained, 190f
    EtO resistance of, 189t, 190t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 189t
    manufacturers and trade names of, 188
    steam resistance of, 190t
    sterile applications of, 188
    uses of, 188
    Polyamide-imides (PAIs), 169e173
    chemical structure of, 169f, 170f
    gamma radiation resistance, 170f
    manufacturers and trade names, 169
    polymer units of, 171t, 172t
    sterile applications of, 169e170, 174
    uses of, 169e170
    Polyamides (nylons), 183e200
    copolymers/terpolymers, 192e195
    generalized reaction of, 183f
    polyamide 6 (nylon 6), 184e185
    polyamide 11 (nylon 11), 185e187
    polyamide 12 (nylon 12), 187e198
    polyamide 66 (nylon 66), 188
    polyarylamide, 188e192
    Polyanhydrides, 309
    structure of, 309f
    Polyarylamide (PAA), 188
    characteristics of, 188e190, 192
    chemical structure of, 192f
    EtO resistance of, 189f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 189t, 195t
    heat resistance of, 193f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 192
    steam resistance of, 194f
    sterile applications of, 170
    uses of, 192
    Polyaryletherketone (PAEK), 277e282
    EtO resistance of, 282f
    steam resistance of, 283f, 284f
    structure of, 281f
    Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), 135
    EtO resistance of, 139t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 138t
    hydrolysis resistance of, 138t
    manufacturers and trade names of, 135
    sterile applications of, 135
    uses of, 135
    Polycaprolactone (PCL), 311
    irradiation, 311f
    structure of, 311f
    Polycarbonate, 135e140
    beta radiation resistance of, 157f, 158f
    chemical structure of, 139f
    electron beam resistance of, 145t, 146t, 147t
    EtO radiation resistance of, 137e138, 147t, 148t, 149t, 150t, 151t,
    152t, 153t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 137, 140t, 141t, 142t, 143t, 144t, 145t,
    154f, 155f, 156f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 137
    properties of, 137
    regulatory status of, 140
    steam sterilization resistance of, 138e139, 158f
    sterile applications of, 137
    sterilization with hot air, 139e140
    sterilization with peracetic acid, 139
    uses of, 137
    Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), 270
    gamma radiation resistance of, 270t
    structure of, 270f
    Polycyclohexylene-dimethylene terephthalate (PCT), 141e159
    autoclave sterilization of, 159
    chemical structure of, 160f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 141
    manufacturers and trade names of, 141
    sterile applications of, 141
    uses of, 141
    Polydispersity, see Molar-mass dispersity index
    Polyesters, 133e168
    chemical structure of, 133f
    Polyether ether ketones (PEEKs), 277
    EtO resistance of, 278f, 279f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 278t
    steam resistance of, 278t, 279f, 280f, 281f
    structure of, 277f
    Polyetherimide (PEI), 170e174
    dry heat resistance of, 174, 180f
    EtO resistance of, 170, 175t, 176t, 177t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 170, 177f, 178f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 170
    performance features of, 170
    regulatory status of, 174
    steam resistance of, 170e174, 177t, 179f, 180f
    sterile applications of, 170
    Polyethersulfone (PES), 292e296
    steam resistance of, 296t, 297f, 298f
    structure of, 296f
    Polyethylene (PE), 201e213
    crystal structure of, 202f
    high-density, 203e213
    linear low-density, 202e203
    low-density, 203
    types of, 202f
    ultra high molecular weight, 213
    ultra low-density, 202
    unsaturation of, 44
    Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), 166e167
    autoclave sterilization of, 166
    chemical structure of, 166f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 166
    resistance to ionizing radiation, 167
    sterile applications of, 166
    uses of, 166
    Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 42, 49e50, 135e159
    chemical structure of, 159f
    electron beam resistance of, 159f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 135e140
    melting point of, 80f
    sterile applications of, 141
    uses of, 141
    Polyglycolic acid (PGA), 315e317
    sterilization methods, 317
    structure of, 317
    Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), 313
    structure of, 315f
    Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PH3B), 313e315
    gamma radiation resistance of, 316f
    Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), 305, 311e313
    conversion of lactic acid to, 312f
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 314f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 312f, 313f, 314f
    360 INDEXPolyimides (PIs), 169e182
    chemical structure of, 184f
    electrom exposure, 182t
    gamma radiation resistance, 181t
    manufacturers and trade names, 174
    polyamide-imides, 169e170
    polyetherimide, 170e174
    polyimides, 174e175
    sterile applications of, 174
    Poly l-lactic acid (PLLA), 311e313
    EtO resistance of, 315f
    steam resistance of, 315f
    Polymerization, 41e42
    addition, 41, 42f
    condensation, 41e42, 42f
    degree of, 48e49
    Polymers
    additives, 51e55
    amorphous, 49e50
    blends, 50e51
    branched, 43
    copolymers, see Copolymers
    cross-linked, 43
    crystalline, 49e50
    elastomers, 51
    inter alterations in, 46e48
    intermolecular alterations in, 46e48
    linear, 43
    liquid crystal, see Liquid crystal polymers
    molecular weight of, 48e49
    orientation, 50
    polarity of, 43e44, 44f
    steric hindrance of, 45, 45f
    unsaturation of, 44e45
    Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), 239e240
    structure of, 240f
    Poly-4-methyl-1-pentene (PMP), 221e225
    manufacturers and trade names of, 221
    sterile applications of, 221
    structure of, 222f
    uses of, 221
    Polyolefins, 201e226
    chemical structure of, 201f
    cyclic olefin copolymer, 225
    plastomers, 225e226
    polyethylene, 201e213
    high-density, 203e213
    linear low-density, 202e203
    low-density, 203
    types of, 202f
    ultra low-density, 202
    ultra high molecular weight, 213
    poly-4-methyl-1-pentene, 221e225
    polypropylene, 215e221
    Polyoxymethylene (POM), 300e301
    chemical structure of, 300f
    copolymer, 300e301
    chemical structure of, 300f
    Polyphenylene, 301
    structure of, 301f
    Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), 282e284
    gamma radiation resistance of, 285t, 286t, 287f
    steam resistance of, 287f
    structure of, 284f
    Polyphenylene sulfone (PPS), unsaturation of, 45
    Polyphenylsulfone (PPSU), 285e292
    EtO resistance of, 293f
    low-temperature hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization, 292t,
    295f
    steam resistance of, 293f, 294f, 295f
    structure of, 292f
    Polyphthalate carbonate (PPC)
    chemical structure of, 166f
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 167t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 167t
    Polypropene
    atactic, 46, 47f
    isotactic, 46, 47f
    structure of, 46, 46f
    syndiotactic, 46, 47f
    Polypropylene, 215e221
    autoclave sterilization of, 221
    EtO resistance of, 218t, 219t, 221f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 215t, 216t, 217t, 218e221, 220f, 221f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 217
    sterile applications of, 217
    sterilization resistance of, 218
    types of, 215e217
    uses of, 217
    Polysiloxane/silicone rubber, 339e347
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 349f, 350f, 351f
    EtO resistance of, 351f, 352f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 347f, 348f, 349f
    structure of, 347f
    Polystyrene, 92e103
    chemical structure of, 101f
    electron beam radiation resistance of, 101, 102t, 110t
    EtO resistance of, 101, 102t, 104t, 105t, 106t, 111t, 112t, 113f, 114f,
    115f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 101, 101t, 102t, 107t, 108t, 109t, 112f,
    113f, 115f
    general purpose, 92
    high-heat crystal, 103
    manufacturers and trade names of, 101
    sterile applications of, 101
    syndiotactic, 103
    uses of, 101
    UV light sterilization resistance of, 101
    Polysulfone (PSU), 284e285
    EtO resistance of, 288f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 288t
    steam resistance of, 289f, 290f, 291f, 292f
    structure of, 287f
    Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 53, 262e264
    amorphous, 263
    degradation mechanisms of, 264f
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 265f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 264f
    structure of, 263f
    three-dimensional representation of, 263f
    Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 231e234
    classification of, 231e232
    degradation, 233, 234f, 237f
    EtO resistance of, 236t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 234t, 235t, 236t, 237f,
    238f, 239f
    medical devices, 232
    Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF), 269e270
    gamma radiation resistance of, 270f
    structure of, 269f
    Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), 234e237
    structure of, 239f
    INDEX 361Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 271
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 271t, 274f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 272f, 273f, 274f
    structure of, 271f
    Povidoneeiodine, structure of, 27f
    p-Phenyne diamine (PDA), chemical structure of, 175f
    Prions, 4
    Prokaryotes, 1
    Propylene, chemical structure of, 201f
    Protozoans, 5
    Puncture strength, 72
    Puncture test, high-speed, 71e72, 71f
    Pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA), chemical structure of,
    175f
    Q
    Quaternary ammonium compounds, 30
    modes of action, 30
    uses of, 30
    R
    Rad and gray units conversion, 9t
    Radiation dose, 15e16, 16t
    Radiation stabilizers, 54
    Random copolymers, 215, 217, see Copolymers
    Reinforcing fillers, 51e52
    Release agents, 52
    Renewable resource and biodegradable polymers, 305e318
    Cellophane
    , 309e310
    commercial materials, 306te308t
    ethyl cellulose, 311
    nitrocellulose, 310e311
    poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, 313e315
    poly lactic acid, 311e313
    poly l-lactic acid, 311e313
    polyanhydrides, 309
    polycaprolactone, 311
    polyglycolic acid, 315e317
    Rigidity, of plastic materials, 67e68, 69f
    Roentgen, W.K., 8e9
    S
    Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 5f
    Salting, 7
    Sarcocystis, 5
    Sebacic acid, chemical structure of, 184f
    Self-reinforced polymers (SRPs), 301e304
    EtO resistance of, 302f
    steam resistance of, 302f, 303f
    structure of, 301f
    Semi-critical equipment/device, 18t
    Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp, 16
    Shear properties, 68e70
    Slip additives, 53, 53f, see Additives
    Smoke suppressants, 52
    Smoking, 8
    Sodium dichloroisocyanurate, 24, 24f
    Solvay Solexis Halar, 275
    Specific gravity, 57
    Staphylococcus, 1
    Steam sterilization, 18e20
    advantages of, 20
    disadvantages of, 20
    immediate-use, see Flash sterilization
    mode of action, 19
    uses of, 20
    Step-growth polymerization, see Condensation polymerization
    Stereosiomers, 46
    Steric hindrance, 45, 45f
    Sterilization, defined, 17e18
    Structural isomers, 45, 45f, 46f
    Styrene, chemical structure of, 85f
    Styreneeacrylonitrile (SAN) copolymer, 85, 103e105
    electron beam radiation resistance of, 117t
    EtO resistance of, 105, 117t, 118t, 119t, 121f
    gamma radiation resistance of, 105, 116t, 117t, 120f,
    121f
    manufacturers and trade names of, 105
    regulatory status of, 105
    steam sterilization resistance of, 105
    sterile applications of, 105
    uses of, 105, see Copolymers
    Styreneebutadiene copolymers (SBC), 110
    electron beam radiation resistance of, 126t, 127t, 128t
    EtO resistance of, 110, 129t, 130t, 131t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 110, 122t, 123t, 124t, 125t
    manufacturers and trade names of, 110
    regulatory of, 110
    sterile applications of, 110
    structure of, 122f, see Copolymers
    Styrenic plastics, 85e132
    sterilization capabilities of, 85t
    Sugaring, 8
    Superoxidized water, 24e25
    modes of action, 25
    uses of, 25
    Surfacine, 30
    Syndiotactic polypropene, 46, 47f, see Polypropene
    Syndiotactic polystyrene (SPS), 103, see Polystyrene
    T
    Tear properties, 75e76
    Elmendorf tear strength, 75
    Trouser tear resistance, 76
    Tecoflex, 334
    Tecophilic, 334
    Tecoplast, 334
    Tecothane, 334
    Teflon AF, 268
    radiation dose, 269f
    structure of, 268f
    Tensile properties, 64e67, 67f, 67t, 68f, 68t
    Terephthalic acid (TPA), chemical structure of, 160f, 184f
    Thermal property testing, of plastics, 77e84
    glass transition temperature, 80e84
    heat deflection temperature, 77f, 79
    melt flow index, 76f, 77e79, 78t
    melting point, 80
    Vicat softening temperature, 79e80, 79f
    Thermal stabilizers, 55
    Thermal tests, 64t
    Thermoplastic copolyester elastomers (TPC-E), 320e321
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 323t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 321t, 322t
    structure of, 321f
    thermal sterilization, 324t
    Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs), 319, 319f, 325e331
    EtO resistance of, 332t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 331t, 332t
    steam resistance of, 332t, 333t
    362 INDEXThermoplastic polyether block polyamide elastomers
    (TPA-ET or PEBA), 320
    Thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers (TPU), 331e334
    electron beam irradiation resistance of, 340t, 341t, 342t
    EtO resistance of, 343t, 344t, 345t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 334t, 335t, 336t, 337t, 338t, 339t, 345f,
    346f
    structure of, 333f
    Thermoplastics, 49
    Thermosets, 49
    Thymol, 29, 29f
    Ticona Vectra A950 LCP, chemical structure of, 135f
    Tinuvin-P, 2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-p-cresol, 233
    radiation dose, 233f
    structure of, 233f
    Tortuous path effect, 52
    Tougheners, 54
    Toughness, 76e77
    Toxins, 1
    Toxoplasma, 5
    Trans-isomers, 46f
    Trichinella spiralis, 4
    Trouser tear resistance, 76
    U
    Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), 213
    EtO resistance of, 213, 213t
    gamma radiation resistance of, 213, 213f, 213t, 214f
    sterile applications of, 213, see Polyethylene
    Ultra low-density polyethylene (ULDPE), 201e202
    manufacturers and trade names of, 202
    sterile applications of, 202, see Polyethylene
    Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), 12e14, 13f,
    14f, 15f
    ductwork-installed, 36f
    hospital bed air space, 36f
    Ultraviolet radiation
    types of, 13t
    stabilizers, 54
    sterilization by, 36
    Unsaturation, 44e45
    V
    Van der Waals forces, 47e48
    Vaporized hydrogen peroxide (VHP), 33, see Hydrogen peroxide
    Vaporized peracetic acid, 35e36, see Peracetic acid
    Very low-density polyethylene (VLDPE), 201, see Polyethylene
    Vicat softening temperature, 79e80
    test apparatus, 79f
    Vinyl benzene. see Styrene
    Viruses, 3, 3f
    X
    X-ray Irradiator, 11e12
    Y
    Yeasts, 5
    Yellowness index (YI), 61e62

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