Make: Basic Arduino Projects – 26 Experiments with Microcontrollers and Electronics
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Don Wilcher
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Make: Basic Arduino Projects – 26 Experiments with Microcontrollers and Electronics
Don Wilcher
ContentsTwin LED Flasher . 31
Build the Adjustable Twin LED Flasher . 35
It’s Alive! Build a FrankenBot Toy 38
Something to Think About . 41

  1. The Opposite Switch 43
    Parts List . 43
    Circuit Theory 44
    The Opposite Switch (aka the NOT Logic Gate) . 45
    Build an Arduino NOT Logic Gate . 45
    Upload the Arduino NOT Logic Gate Sketch 46
    Something to Think About . 50
  2. The AND Logic Gate . 51
    Parts List . 51
    Circuit Theory 52
    The Arduino AND Logic Gate . 55
    Upload the Arduino AND Logic Gate Sketch 57
    Something to Think About . 59
  3. The OR Logic Gate 61
    Parts List . 61
    Circuit Theory 62
    The Arduino OR Logic Gate 64
    Upload the Arduino OR Logic Gate Sketch . 66
    Something to Think About . 69
  4. Tilt Flasher 71
    Parts List . 71
    Circuit Theory 72
    The Up-Down Sensor 73
    Something to Think About . 76
  5. Multicolor RGB Flasher 79
    Parts List . 79
    Circuit Theory 80
    The RGB Flasher 81
    iv ContentsSomething to Think About . 86
  6. The Magic Light Bulb 87
    Parts List . 87
    Let’s Build a Magic Light Bulb 88
    Upload the Magic Light Bulb Sketch 89
    Circuit Theory 91
    Something to Think About . 92
  7. Metal Checker: The Electronic Switch 95
    Parts List . 95
    Let’s Build a Metal Checker . 96
    Upload the Metal Checker Sketch . 98
    Circuit Theory . 100
    Something to Think About 101
  8. The Theremin 103
    Parts List . 103
    Let’s Build a Theremin 104
    Upload the Theremin Sketch 106
    Circuit Theory . 109
    Something to Think About 110
  9. An Arduino Ohmmeter . 111
    Parts List . 111
    Let’s Build an Arduino Ohmmeter 112
    Upload the Arduino Ohmmeter Sketch . 113
    Circuit Theory . 115
    Something to Think About 117
  10. The LCD News Reader 119
    Parts List . 119
    Let’s Build the LCD . 120
    Upload the LCD News Reader Sketch . 122
    Circuit Theory . 128
    Something to Think About 129
  11. A Logic Tester (with an RGB LED) 131
    Parts List . 131
    Contents vLet’s Build a Logic Tester 132
    Upload the Logic Tester Sketch 133
    Circuit Theory . 135
    Something to Think About 136
  12. A Logic Tester (with an LCD) 137
    Parts List . 137
    Let’s Build a Logic Tester 138
    Upload the Logic Tester Sketch 139
    Circuit Theory . 141
    Something to Think About 142
  13. The Amazing Pushbutton (with Processing) . 143
    Parts List . 143
    Let’s Build an Amazing Pushbutton 144
    Upload the Amazing Pushbutton Sketch . 146
    Download and Install Processing Notes 148
    Let’s Visualize Digital Data with Processing 148
    Troubleshooting Tips for Processing . 155
    Something to Think About 156
  14. The Terrific Tilt Switch (with Processing) 157
    Parts List . 157
    Let’s Build a Terrific Tilt Switch . 158
    Upload the Terrific Tilt Switch Sketch . 159
    Let’s Visualize Digital Data with Processing 162
    Something to Think About 167
  15. The Rocket Launching Game (with Processing) 169
    Parts List . 169
    Let’s Build a Rocket Game 170
    Upload the MultiDigital4 Sketch . 171
    The Rocket Launcher with Processing 174
    Something to Think About 181
  16. Temperature Indicator (with Processing) 183
    Parts List . 183
    Let’s Build a Temperature Indicator 184
    vi ContentsUpload the Temperature Indicator Sketch 185
    The Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Sensor with Processing . 188
    Something to Think About 191
  17. Sweeping Servo 193
    Parts List . 193
    Let’s Build a Servo Motor Tester . 194
    Upload the Sweeping Sketch . 195
    Something to Think About 198
  18. Electronic Cricket 199
    Parts List . 199
    Let’s Build an Electronic Cricket 200
    Upload the Electronic Cricket Sketch . 201
    Something to Think About 204
  19. A Pocket Stage Light . 205
    Parts List . 205
    Let’s Build a Pocket Stage Light 206
    Upload the Pocket Stage Light Sketch 208
    Something to Think About 211
  20. Electronic Pixel . 213
    Parts List . 213
    Let’s Build an Electronic Pixel 214
    Upload the Electronic Pixel Sketch . 216
    Something to Think About 219
  21. The Metronome 221
    Parts List . 221
    Let’s Build a Metronome 222
    Upload the Metronome Sketch 225
    Something to Think About 228
  22. The Secret Word Game . 231
    Parts List . 231
    Let’s Build a Secret Word Game 232
    Upload the Secret Word Game Sketch 234
    Rules for the Secret Word Game . 237
    Contents viiSomething to Think About 237
    Index . 239
    Index
    Symbols
    != (logical NOT function), 47
    && (logical AND function), 58
    100 uF electrolytic capacitor, 105
    || (logical OR function), 66
    Ω (omega symbol), for ohms, 32
    A
    Adjustable Twin LED Flasher, 35
    sketch, 39
    Amazing Pushbutton (with Processing),
    143–156
    Amazing Pushbutton in action, 153
    building, 144
    DisplayItems Processing sketch, 152–
    153
    downloading and installing Processing,
    148
    parts list, 143
    pa_Pushbutton Processing sketch,
    149–152
    uploading the sketch, 146
    visualizing digital data with Processing,
    148
    amplifiers
    simple transistor amplifier, 103–110
    building a Theremin, 104
    circuit theory, 109
    parts list, 103
    uploading Theremin sketch, 106
    using Serial Monitor for Theremin
    sketch data, 108
    AND logic gate, 51
    (see also Arduino AND logic gate)
    circuit symbol for, 54
    reasons to use Arduino microcontroller
    to build, 55
    truth table, 54
    animatronic controllers, 24
    Arduino AND logic gate, 51–59
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 59
    building, 55
    circuit theory, 52
    parts list, 51
    uploading sketch for, 57
    Arduino IDE
    Serial Monitor, 14
    Arduino NOT logic gate, 43–50
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 49
    building, 45
    circuit symbol for NOT logic gate, 45
    circuit theory, 44
    Fritzing wiring diagram, 45
    parts list, 43
    pressing pushbutton switch, 47
    testing using truth table, 49
    truth table, 45
    uploading logic gate sketch, 46
    Arduino Ohmmeter, 111–117
    building, 112
    circuit theory, 115
    electrical safety tip, 117
    parts list, 111
    uploading the sketch, 113
    Arduino OR logic gate, 61–69
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 68
    building, 64
    circuit theory, 62
    parts list, 61
    uploading scheme for, 66
    B
    binary number system, 172
    block diagrams, 135
    C
    capacitors, polarized, 106
    cathodes, 85
    Circuit Lab, 2
    circuit schematic diagrams (see electronic
    circuit schematic diagrams)
    circuit symbol
    for AND logic gate, 54
    239for NOT logic gate, 45
    classes, 166
    color-coded wires, 195
    common anode, 85
    common anode pin, 83
    common anode RGB LED, 81
    Console Monitor, 176
    counters, for loop, 92
    crickets, 199
    (see also Electronic Cricket)
    response to temperature, 199
    current, defined, 73
    D
    DC motors, 197
    DMM (digital multimeter), 14
    reading resistance of tilt control switch,
    26
    DPDT (double pole, double throw) switch,
    214
    E
    electrical circuits, creating and testing with
    online simulator, 2
    Electrical Motor Tester (see Sweeping Servo)
    electrical safety tips
    for Arduino Ohmmeter, 117
    for Metal Checker, 101
    electrical signal flow of electronic products,
    135
    electronic circuit schematic diagrams, 15
    Adjustable Twin LED Flasher, 35
    AND logic gate controlling LED, 53
    Arduino AND logic gate, 59
    Arduino NOT logic gate, 49
    Arduino Ohmmeter, 115
    Arduino OR logic gate, 68
    DPDT switch toggling two LEDs, 72
    Electronic Cricket, 203
    Electronic Pixel, 218
    Interactive Twin LED Flasher, 38
    LCD News Reader, 128
    Logic Tester, 135
    Logic Tester (with an LCD), 141
    Magic Light Bulb, 91
    Metal Checker, 100
    Metronome, 228
    OR logic gate controlling an LED, 62
    Pocket Stage Light, 210
    RGB Flasher, 81
    Rocket Game, 181
    Secret Word Game, 237
    Servo Motor Tester, 197
    Terrific Tilt Switch, 167
    Theremin, 109
    Tilt Sensing Servo Motor Controller, 26
    Trick Switch, 6
    Up-Down Sensor, 73
    Electronic Cricket, 199–204
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram of Electronic Cricket, 203
    building, 200
    parts list, 199
    uploading the sketch, 201
    electronic metronomes, 221
    Electronic Pixel, 213–219
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 218
    building, 214
    parts list, 213
    uploading the sketch, 216–218
    F
    FALSE and TRUE states, 52
    for loop, operating Magic Light Bulb, 92
    FrankenBot toy, 38–41
    Interactive Twin LED Flasher, 38
    Fritzing circuit schematic diagrams (see
    electronic circuit schematic diagrams)
    Fritzing diagrams
    Adjustable Twin LED Flasher, 35
    Amazing Pushbutton, 144
    AND logic gate, 53
    Arduino AND logic gate, 55
    Arduino Ohmmeter, 112
    Arduino OR logic gate, 64
    electronic circuit schematic diagram of
    Tilt Sensing Servo Motor Controller,
    26
    electronic circuit schematic of SunriseSunset Light Switch, 15
    Electronic Cricket, 200
    Electronic Pixel, 214
    Interactive Twin LED Flasher, 38
    LCD News Reader, 122
    Logic Tester with an LCD, 138
    Logic Tester with an RGB LED, 132
    Magic Light Bulb, 88
    Metal Checker, 96
    Metronome, 223
    OR logic gate, 62
    Pocket Stage Light, 206
    RGB Flasher, 81
    Rocket Launcher, 170
    Secret Word Game, 232
    Servo Motor Tester, 194
    simple NOT Logic Gate wiring diagram,
    44
    Sunrise-Sunset Light Switch, 10
    240 IndexTemperature Indicator, 184
    Terrific Tilt Switch, 158
    Theremin, 104
    Tilt Sensing Servo Motor Controller, 21
    Trick Switch, 3
    Twin LED Flasher, 31
    Up-Down Sensor, 73
    G
    gesture controls, 71
    H
    headers
    adding 16-pin male header to LCD, 138
    defined, 121
    male header soldered to LCD PCB, 120
    I
    infinite resistance reading on DMM, 26
    Interactive Twin LED Flasher, 38
    inverters, 45
    L
    LCD News Reader, 119–129
    building the LCD, 120
    circuit theory, 128
    parts list, 119
    sketch for, 122–128
    uploading the sketch, 122
    LCDs, 119
    in Secret Word Game, 232
    logic tester with LCD, 137–142
    LDRs (light-dependent resistors), 14
    (see also photocells)
    LEDs
    in Arduino OR logic gate, 64
    in parallel, 29–41
    Adjustable Twin LED Flasher, 35
    circuit theory, 31
    Interactive Twin LED Flasher, 38
    twin LED flasher, 31
    multicolor (see Multicolor RGB Flasher)
    replacing incandescent light bulb, 66
    RGB, 79
    (see also RGB LEDs)
    staying on after switched off, 1
    taking pin LOW to light it, 85
    light-dependent resistors (LDRs), 14
    (see also photocells)
    liquid crystal displays (see LCDs; LCD News
    Reader)
    logic gates, 43
    (see also Arduino AND logic gate; Arduino NOT logic gate; Arduino OR logic gate)
    logic operators, 55
    logic probe, 141
    Logic Tester (with an LCD), 137–142
    building, 138
    circuit theory, 141
    parts list, 137
    uploading the sketch, 139
    Logic Tester (with an RGB LED), 131–136
    building, 132
    circuit theory, 135
    parts list, 131
    uploading the sketch, 133
    M
    Magic Light Bulb, 87–92
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 91
    building, 88
    parts list, 87
    running through tricolor pattern, 89
    uploading the sketch, 89
    MakerShield, 29
    Adjustable Twin LED Flasher, 35
    Arduino AND logic gate, 55
    directions for building, 33
    Interactive Twin LED Flasher, 38
    Magic Light Bulb built on, 88
    Metal Checker built on, 96
    NOT logic gate device, 46
    RGB Flasher built on, 83
    Theremin built on, 104
    Twin LED Flasher, building on, 31
    up-down sensor built on, 75
    Makezine/Arduino projects website, 46
    Metal Checker, 95–101
    building, 96
    circuit theory, 100
    electrical safety tip, 101
    parts list, 95
    reasons to use transistor and Arduino,
    97
    uploading sketch for, 98
    Metronome, 221–228
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 228
    building, 222
    parts list, 221
    uploading the sketch, 225–228
    microcontrollers, Arduino, using to build
    logic gates, 55
    Microsoft, Kinect, 206
    Multicolor RGB Flasher, 79–86
    circuit theory, 80
    parts list and block diagram, 79
    RGB Flasher sketch, 83
    Index 241RGB Flasher, building, 81
    N
    Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
    Sensor, 188–191
    NOT logic gate, 43
    (see also Arduino NOT logic gate)
    circuit symbol for, 45
    truth table, 45, 49
    NPN transistors, 100
    O
    ohmmeters, 111
    (see also Arduino Ohmmeter)
    ohms and omega symbol (Ω), 32
    ON-OFF indicators for Trick Switch, 4
    Opposite Switch (see Arduino NOT logic
    gate)
    OR logic gate, 61
    (see also Arduino OR logic gate)
    circuit schematic diagram, 62
    Fritzing wiring diagram, 62
    truth tables, 63
    orientation detection sensor circuit, 27
    oscillators, 104
    P
    parallel circuits, 62
    parts lists
    Amazing Pushbutton (with Processing),
    143
    Arduino AND logic gate, 51
    Arduino NOT logic gate, 43
    Arduino Ohmmeter, 111
    Electronic Cricket, 199
    Electronic Pixel, 213
    LCD News Reader, 119
    Logic Tester with an LCD, 137
    Logic Tester with an RGB LED, 131
    Magic Light Bulb, 87
    Metal Checker, 95
    Metronome, 221
    Multicolor RGB Flasher, 79
    OR logic gate, 61
    Pocket Stage Light, 205
    Rocket Launcher, 169
    Secret Word Game, 231
    simple transistor amplifier, 103
    Sunrise-Sunset Light Switch, 9
    Sweeping Servo Motor Tester, 193
    Temperature Indicator, 183
    Terrific Tilt Switch (with Processing),
    157
    Tilt Flasher, 71
    Tilt Sensing Servo Motor Controller, 19
    Trick Switch, 1
    PCBs (printed circuit boards), 122
    photocells, 10
    defined, 12
    in Arduino AND logic gate, 55
    in Interactive Twin LED Flasher, 38
    in OR logic gate, 64
    picture of, 13
    sensor data scrolling on Serial Monitor,
    108
    physical computing, 24, 206
    piezo buzzer
    in Metal Checker, 97
    troubleshooting, 100
    in Metronome, 223
    pitch range, Electronic Cricket, 203
    pixels, 213
    (see also Electronic Pixel)
    PNP transistors, 100
    Pocket Stage Light, 205–211
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 210
    building, 206
    parts list, 205
    uploading the sketch, 208–210
    polarized capacitors, 106
    potentiometers, 13
    adjusting sound level of buzzer in Metronome, 223
    in LCD News Reader, 120, 128
    in logic tester with an LCD, 138
    operating mini speaker, 203
    printed circuit boards (PCBs), 122
    Processing, 143
    additional information on, 154
    DisplayItems sketch, 152–153, 165, 179
    download site for version 2.0, 171
    downloading and installing, 148
    NTC Sensor sketch, 188
    pa_Pushbutton Processing sketch,
    149–152
    pa_Tilt sketch, 162–165
    Rocket Game sketch, 174–179
    visualizing digital data with, 148, 162
    puppets, electromechanical, 24
    Pushbutton Multicolor Flasher (see Magic
    Light Bulb)
    pushbutton switches in parallel (see Arduino OR logic gate)
    pushbutton switches in series (see Arduino
    AND logic gate)
    242 IndexR
    resistance
    measuring for electronic components,
    111
    mesuring with Arduino Ohmmeter, 113
    reading for tilt control switch, 26
    relationship with voltage, 115
    resistor-capacitor timing basics
    Sunrise-Sunset Light Switch, 9–16
    Trick Switch, 1–6
    resistors, 111
    connected in series, resistance reading
    from, 115
    in logic tester with an LCD, 139
    retro portable electronic games, 231
    (see also Secret Word Game)
    RGB Flasher, 79
    (see also Multicolor RGB Flasher)
    block diagram, 79
    building, 81
    sketch for, 83
    RGB LEDs, 79
    common anode, 81
    creating white light with, 207
    in Electronic Pixel, 214
    in Pocket Stage Light, 206
    logic tester with, 131–136
    pinout of RGB LED, 132
    operation with mini pushbutton switch
    in Magic Light Bulb, 89
    SPST switches controlling, 80
    taking pin LOW to light it, 85
    typical, with pinout names, 80
    Rocket Launching Game (with Processing),
    169–181
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 181
    building a Rocket Game, 170
    DisplayItems Processing Sketch, 179
    MultiDigital4 sketch, 172–174
    Rocket Game Processing sketch, 174–
    179
    Rocket Launcher parts list, 169
    uploading MultiDigital4 sketch, 171
    S
    Secret Word Game, 231–237
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 237
    building, 232
    parts list, 231
    rules for, 237
    uploading the sketch, 234–237
    sensors, 19
    serial communications (see Electronic Pixel)
    Serial Monitor, 210
    using to debug code, 108
    serial monitors
    output for tilt control switch information, 24
    Sunrise-Sunset detector with, 14
    displaying Sunset and Sunrise messages, 15
    series circuit, 53
    servo motors, 197
    build process for Tilt Sensing Servo Motor Controller, 20
    in Metronome, 222
    testing limits of, 193
    tilt sensing servo motor controller, 19
    sketches (code)
    Adjustable Twin LED Flasher, 35, 39
    Amazing Pushbutton sketch, 146
    Arduino AND Logic Gate, 57
    Arduino NOT Logic Gate, 46
    Arduino Ohmmeter sketch, 113
    Arduino OR logic gate, 66
    Blink sketch for Twin LED Flasher, 31
    DisplayItems Processing sketch, 152–
    153, 165, 179
    Electronic Cricket sketch, 202
    Electronic Pixel, 216
    LCD News Reader, 122–128
    Logic Tester (with an LCD), 140
    Logic Tester sketch, 133
    Magic Light Bulb running through tricolor pattern, 89
    Metal Checker sketch, 98
    Metronome sketch, 226
    MultiDigital4 sketch, 172–174
    NTC Sensor Processing sketch, 188
    pa_Pushbutton Processing sketch,
    149–152
    pa_Tilt Processing sketch, 162–165
    Pocket Stage Light sketch, 208
    Processing sketch listings for Arduino
    projects, 162
    Pushbutton, 3
    Pushbutton with LED indicators
    changes, 5
    RGB Flasher, 83
    Rocket Game Processing sketch, 176–
    179
    Secret Word Game, 234–237
    Sunrise Sunset Detector with Serial
    Monitor, 14
    Sunrise-Sunset Light Switch, 11
    Sweeping sketch, 196
    Temperature Indicator sketch, 186
    Index 243Terrific Tilt Switch, 160
    Theremin sketch, 106
    Tilt Control Switch, 23
    Tilt Control Switch with Serial Monitor,
    24
    Up-Down Sensor built on MakerShield,
    75
    smartphone touch screens, 206
    SPDT (single pole, double throw) switch,
    214
    speakers
    mini 8Ω speaker for Theremin, 104, 106
    potentiometer operating mini speaker,
    203
    SPST (single pole, single throw) switches,
    80
    stage lighting, 205
    (see also Pocket Stage Light)
    Sunrise-Sunset Light Switch, 9–16
    block diagram of electronic components and electrical signal flow, 15
    circuit schematic diagram, 15
    detector with serial monitor, 14
    Fritzing Wiring Diagram, 10
    parts list, 9
    RC timing circuit with photocell, 12
    serial monitor displaying messages, 15
    Sweeping Servo, 193–198
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 197
    building a servo motor tester, 194
    parts list, 193
    uploading Sweeping sketch, 195
    T
    temperatore sensing (see Electronic Cricket; Pocket Stage Light)
    Temperature Indicator (with Processing),
    183–191
    block diagram and electronic circuit
    schematic diagram, 191
    building a Temperature Indicator, 184
    Negative Temperature Coefficient
    (NTC) Sensor with Processing, 188–
    191
    parts list, 183
    Temperature Indicator sketch, 186
    uploading Temperature Indicator
    sketch, 185
    Terrific Tilt Switch (with Processing), 157–
    167
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 167
    building, 158
    DisplayItems Processing sketch, 165
    parts list, 157
    pa_Tilt Processing sketch, 162–165
    uploading Terrific Tilt Switch sketch,
    159
    visualizing digital data with Processing,
    162
    Theremin
    block diagram and circuit schematic diagram, 109
    building, 104
    for simple transistor amplifier, 103
    uploading sketch to the Arduino, 106
    using Serial Monitor to display data
    from sketch, 108
    thermistors
    defined, 183
    experimenting with 10KΩ thermistor
    and RGB LEDs, 210
    in electronic cricket, 199
    in Pocket Stage Light, 206
    in Temperature Indicator, 186
    tick, synchronizing with swinging motion
    in Metronome, 228
    Tiger Electronics, 231
    tilt control switch, 72
    tilt control switch, typical, 27
    Tilt Flasher, 71–76
    circuit theory, 72
    parts list, 71
    testing, 76
    up-down sensor, 73
    Up-Down Sensor block diagram, 71
    uploading sketch for Up-Down Sensor
    built on MakerShield, 75
    Tilt Sensing Servo Motor Controller, 19–28
    animatronic controller using, 24
    block diagram, 26
    building process, steps in, 20
    circuit schematic diagram, 26
    circuit theory, 27
    observing tilt control switch behavior,
    26
    parts lists, 19
    Tilt Control Switch sketch, 23
    tilt control switch with Serial Monitor,
    24
    uploading tilt sensor sketch, 23
    tilt sensor, 72
    transistors
    2N3904 NPN transistor pinout, 97
    defined, 100
    in pushbutton switch for logic tester
    with LCD, 139
    reasons for use in Metal Checker, 97
    simple transistor amplifier, 103–110
    244 IndexTrick Switch, 1–6
    circuit schematic diagram, 6
    parts list, 1
    Pushbutton sketch, 3
    steps in building process, 2
    Trick Switch block diagram, 6
    Trick Switch with ON-OFF indicators, 4
    Pushbutton sketch with LED indicators changes, 5
    troubleshooting tips
    AND logic gate, 59
    Arduino OR logic gate, 69
    Magic Light Bulb, 92
    Metal Checker, 100
    mini 8Ω speaker for Theremin, 107
    Multicolor RGB Flasher, 85
    NOT logic gate, 49
    Sunrise-Sunset Light Switch, 14
    Tilt Sensing Servo Motor Controller, 23
    Trick Switch device, 3
    Twin LED Flasher, 41
    Up-Down Sensor, 76
    TRUE and FALSE states, 52
    TRUE output for OR logic gate, 62
    truth tables
    for AND logic gate, 54
    for NOT logic gate, 45, 49
    for OR logic gate, 63
    TT (see truth tables)
    Twin LED Flasher, 31
    adjustable flash rate, 35
    Blink sketch, 31
    Fritzing diagram and circuit schematic
    diagram, 31
    interactive, 38
    U
    Ultimate Microcontroller Pack
    MakerShield, 29
    parts for Sunrise-Sunset Light Switch, 9
    parts for Trick Switch, 1
    up-down sensor, 71
    (see also Tilt Flasher)
    block diagram, 71
    building, 73
    V
    variable resistors, 12
    voltage divider, 115
    voltage, relationship with resistance, 115
    W
    wires, color-coded, 195
    wiring diagrams (see Fritzing diagrams)

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