Introduction to Synthetic Aperture Radar Using Python and MATLAB

Introduction to Synthetic Aperture Radar Using Python and MATLAB
Andy Harrison
Contents
Preface xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 History 3
1.2 Fundamentals . 6
1.2.1 Operating Frequency . 6
1.2.2 Sensor Polarization 7
1.3 Applications 10
1.3.1 Remote Sensing . 11
1.3.2 Space Debris Monitoring . 15
1.3.3 Through-Wall Sensing 18
1.3.4 Military Applications . 19
1.3.5 Alternative Navigation 20
1.4 Software 21
1.4.1 Python 22
1.4.2 MATLAB . 24
Problems 27
References 28
2 Imaging Modes 33
2.1 Basic Principles 33
2.2 Stripmap 34
2.2.1 Resolution 37
2.2.2 Pulse Repetition Frequency . 41
vvi Contents
2.2.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 45
2.2.4 Noise Equivalent Sigma Zero 47
2.2.5 Squint Angle . 47
2.3 Spotlight 48
2.3.1 Resolution 49
2.3.2 Pulse Repetition Frequency . 53
2.3.3 SNR 54
2.3.4 Squint Angle . 56
2.4 Scanning Synthetic Aperture Radar 57
2.5 Terrain Observation by Progressive Scan . 57
2.6 SweepSAR 58
2.7 InSAR . 60
2.8 Polarimetric SAR . 61
2.9 Bistatic and Multistatic SAR . 65
2.10 ISAR . 65
2.11 Digital Beamforming . 67
2.12 Examples . 71
2.12.1 Stripmap SAR Range Resolution 71
2.12.2 Stripmap SAR Support Band . 73
2.12.3 Stripmap SAR Point Spread Function 74
2.12.4 Stripmap SAR Doppler Bandwidth . 74
2.12.5 Stripmap SAR Pulse Repetition Frequency . 74
2.12.6 Stripmap SAR SNR . 76
2.12.7 Stripmap SAR CNR . 77
2.12.8 NESZ . 78
2.12.9 Spotlight SAR Cross-Range Resolution . 79
2.12.10 Spotlight SAR Point Spread Function 79
2.12.11 Spotlight SAR Doppler Bandwidth . 80
2.12.12 Spotlight SAR PRF 81
2.12.13 Spotlight SAR SNR . 82
Problems 83
References 87Contents vii
3 Image Formation 91
3.1 Signal Model . 91
3.2 One-Dimensional Range Profiles . 96
3.2.1 Matched Filter 96
3.2.2 Stretch Processor . 99
3.3 Two-Dimensional Imaging 104
3.3.1 Range Doppler Algorithm 105
3.3.2 Polar Format Algorithm . 107
3.3.3 Backprojection Algorithm 110
3.3.4 Algebraic Methods 117
3.3.5 Nontraditional Methods . 122
3.4 Examples . 122
3.4.1 Range Profile — Point Targets 123
3.4.2 Range Profile — Backhoe 123
3.4.3 Range Doppler Algorithm — Point Targets . 124
3.4.4 Range Doppler Algorithm — Backhoe 125
3.4.5 Polar Format Algorithm — Point Targets 126
3.4.6 Polar Format Algorithm — Learjet 128
3.4.7 Backprojection Algorithm — Point Targets . 129
3.4.8 Backprojection Algorithm — Toyota Avalon 131
Problems 143
References 144
4 Three-Dimensional Imaging 149
4.1 Development . 149
4.1.1 Airborne and Spaceborne Systems 150
4.1.2 Through-Wall Systems 151
4.1.3 ISAR . 153
4.2 Point Spread Function . 153
4.3 Polar Format Imaging . 156
4.4 Backprojection Imaging 160
4.4.1 Linear Trace Theorem 161
4.4.2 Filtered Backprojection 164viii Contents
4.5 Examples . 165
4.5.1 Polar Format Algorithm — Point Targets 165
4.5.2 Backprojection Algorithm — Learjet 170
4.5.3 Backprojection Algorithm — Backhoe . 170
Problems 176
References 177
5 Autofocus 183
5.1 Background 184
5.2 Error Model 185
5.3 Model-Based Methods 189
5.3.1 Map Drift . 191
5.4 Nonparametric Methods . 196
5.4.1 Inverse Filtering . 196
5.4.2 Phase Gradient 200
5.4.3 Minimum Entropy 203
5.5 Advanced Autofocus Techniques . 207
5.6 Examples . 210
5.6.1 Map Drift . 210
5.6.2 Inverse Filtering . 213
5.6.3 Phase Gradient 213
5.6.4 Minimum Entropy 216
Problems 216
References 222
6 Image Registration 227
6.1 Methods 228
6.2 Phase Correlation . 229
6.2.1 Translation 229
6.2.2 Rotation 230
6.2.3 Scale Change . 233
6.3 Harris Corner . 234
6.3.1 Corner Detection . 236Contents ix
6.3.2 Corner Matching . 241
6.4 Scale Invariant Feature Transform 242
6.4.1 Gaussian Scale-Space Construction . 243
6.4.2 Keypoint Selection 244
6.4.3 Orientation Assignment . 244
6.4.4 Keypoint Descriptor Creation 248
6.4.5 Descriptor Matching . 250
6.5 Speeded-Up Robust Features . 251
6.5.1 Interest Point Selection 252
6.5.2 Orientation Assignment . 255
6.5.3 Interest Point Descriptors . 256
6.5.4 Descriptor Matching . 258
6.6 Oriented FAST and Rotated BRIEF . 258
6.6.1 FAST . 259
6.6.2 BRIEF 260
6.7 Warp Function Extraction . 262
6.7.1 Formulation 262
6.7.2 RANSAC . 263
6.7.3 Fast-LTS . 264
6.7.4 EF-LTS 268
6.8 Examples . 273
6.8.1 Harris Corner . 273
6.8.2 Phase Correlation . 273
6.8.3 SIFT . 276
6.8.4 ORB . 277
Problems 280
References 280
7 Performance Considerations 287
7.1 Spatial Resolution . 288
7.2 SNR 291
7.2.1 Antenna System . 292
7.2.2 Transmitter 296
7.2.3 Receiver . 301x Contents
7.3 Losses . 306
7.3.1 Hardware Loss 306
7.3.2 Propagation Loss . 306
7.3.3 Signal Processing Loss 308
7.3.4 Antenna Scan Loss 310
7.4 Unambiguous Range . 312
7.5 Data Handling . 316
7.6 Examples . 318
7.6.1 Spatial Resolution 318
7.6.2 Windowing Functions 319
7.6.3 NESZ . 320
7.6.4 Rain Attenuation . 321
7.6.5 Unambiguous Range . 322
7.6.6 RGIQE 323
7.6.7 RNIIRS 325
Problems 327
References 329
8 Future Directions 333
8.1 Applications 334
8.1.1 Spaceborne SAR . 334
8.1.2 Airborne SAR 337
8.1.3 Ground Based SAR 338
8.2 Technology Trends 339
8.2.1 Satellites . 340
8.2.2 Rockets 340
8.2.3 Downlinks 341
8.2.4 Signal and Image Processing . 342
8.3 Workflow and Processes . 342
8.4 Market Demand 343
References 344
A Polarization 351
A.1 Coordinate Convention 353Contents xi
A.2 Jones Vector 353
A.3 Scattering Matrix . 356
A.4 Coherent and Noncoherent Scattering 358
A.4.1 Covariance 358
A.4.2 Coherency 359
A.5 Decompositions 360
A.5.1 Coherent . 360
A.5.2 Noncoherent . 361
References 361
About the Author 36
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