Gravity and Gravitation
Gravity and Gravitation
Derivations Equations and Applications
Ron Kurtus
Sfc Publishing Co.
Lake Oswego, Oregon
Contents
Introduction 19
Part 1: Gravity 25
1.1 Overview of the Force of Gravity 28
1.2 Vectors in Gravity Equations 33
1.3 Convention for Direction in Gravity Equations 39
1.4 Gravity Constant Factors 45
1.5 Equivalence Principle of Gravity 51
1.6 Mass, Weight and Gravity 55
1.7 Horizontal Motion Unaffected by Gravity 63
Part 2: Derivations 0/ Gravity Equations 69
2.1 Overview of Gravity Equation Derivations 71
2.2 Derivation of Velocity-time Equations 76
2.3 Derivation of Displacement-time Equations 81
2.4 Derivation of Displacement-velocity Equations 86
Part 3: Equations/or Falling Objects 91
3.1 Overview of Equations for Falling Objects 93
3.2 Velocity Equations for Falling Objects 96
3.3 Displacement Equations for Falling Objects 101
3.4 Time Equations for Falling Objects 105
Gravity and Gravitation 6
Copynghted Mater Alcontents
Part 4: Equations for Objects Projected Downward
110
4.1 Overview of Equations for Objects Projected Downward
112
4.2 Velocity Equations for Objects Projected Downward 115
4.3 Displacement Equations for Objects Projected Downward
120
4.4 Time Equations for Objects Projected Downward 125
Part 5: Equations for Objects Projected Upward
130
5.1 Overview of Equations for Objects Projected Upward 132
5.2 Velocity Equations for Objects Projected Upward 136
5.3 Displacement Equations for Objects Projected Upward
144
5.4 Time Equations for Objects Projected Upward 154
Part 6: Gravity Applications 164
6.1 Potential Energy of Gravity 166
6.2 Work by Gravity Against Inertia 174
6.3 Work Against Gravity and Inertia by an External Force
183
6.4 Effect of Gravity on Sideways Motion 193
6.5 Effect of Gravity on an Artillery Projectile 199
6.6 Gravity and Newton’s Cannon 210
6.7 Escape Velocity From Gravity 218
6.8 Artificial Gravity 226
6.9 Center of Gravity 234
Part 7: Gravitation 242
7.1 Overview of Gravitation 244
Part 8: Theories of Gravitation 249
8.1 Overview of Theories of Gravitation 251
8.2 Law of Universal Gravitation 257
8.3 Universal Gravitation Equation 263
8.4 General Relativity Theory of Gravitation 269
Gravity and Gravitation 7
Copynghted Mater Alcontents
8.5 Quantum Theory of Gravitation 275
8.6 Effect of Dark Matter and Dark Energy on Gravitation 280
8.7 Gravitation as a Fundamental Force 287
Part 9: Gravitation Principles 292
9.1 Equivalence Principles of Gravitation 294
9.2 Similarity Between Gravitation and Electrostatic Forces
302
9.3 Gravitational Speed 306
9.4 Gravitational Potential Energy 311
Part 10: Gravitation Applications 318
10.1 Gravitational Force Between Two Objects 320
10.2 Cavendish Experiment 325
10.3 Influence of Gravitation in the Universe 332
10.4 Gravitation Causes Tides on Earth 337
Part 11: Center of Mass 343
11.1 Overview of Gravitation and Center of Mass 345
11.2 Center of Mass Definitions 350
11.3 Center of Mass Location and Motion 357
11.4 Relative Motion and Center of Mass 363
11.5 Center of Mass Components 367
11.6 Center of Mass and Radial Gravitational Motion 373
11. 7 Center of Mass and Tangential Gravitational Motion 380
Part 12: Orbital Motion 387
12.1 Derivation of Circular Orbits Arou Nd Center of Mass 389
12.2 Orbital Motion Relative to Other Object 398
12.3 Direction Convention for Gravitational Motion 404
12.4 Circular Planetary Orbits 410
12.5 Length of Year for Planets in Gravitational Orbit 419
12.6 Effect of Velocity on Orbital Motion 428
Part 13: Escape Velocity 435
13.1 Overview of Gravitational Escape Velocity 437
8 Gravity and Gravitation
Copynghted Mater Alcontents
13.2 Gravitational Escape Velocity Derivation 446
13.3 Gravitational Escape Velocity With Saturn V Rocket 453
13.4 Effect of Sun on Escape Velocity From Earth 460
13.6 Gravitational Escape Velocity for a Black Hole 465
Resources 473
Index 483
About the Author 490
Schoolfor Champions 49
Index
Symbols
200 I : a Pace Odysse 228
A
Acceleration Due to Gravity 29. 248
Albert Einstein 22l. 255, 21ll
Algebra 21
Apollo Moon Mission 453
Applications
Gravitation .ll.2
Cavendish Experiment 326_
Electrostatic Forces Lq1
Equivalence Principles 2.2.i
Force, Two Objects J2.l
Potential Energy 312
Peed .3q1
Gravi Ty J..g.5.
Artificial Gravity 221
Artillery Projectile 100
Center of Gravity 235
Escape Velocity 2.l2.
Newton’s Cannon Ill
Potential Energy L.61
Ideways Motion .l24
Work Against Gravity 1m
Work Against Inertia Ll.i
Artificial Gravit 221
Artillery Projectile 2_q_q
Author 490
B
Balance Scale 56
Big Bang J3..3.
Black Hole ~a.6..5.
C
Calculus Zi.zi.zs, L_8_.._8_l 267
Cannonball, Newton’s 2ll
Cartesian Coordinate System ~ 12
Cavendish Experiment .l26.
Cavendish, L Ienry 264, 3..2.6.
Center of Gravity 235
Center of Mass ..3..4.4…3all
Acceleration 3.6..l
Components Asa
Derivation J..2q
Gravitational Motion 351,.15..8
Location Ill
Radial Motion 374
Radial Vector .lid
Relative Motion 3m
Tangential Motion .18l
Tangential Vector 371
Velocity 360
Centrifugal Force 128..,..121
Ora Vity and Ora Uitatiori 483
Copy Adindex
Circular Orbit 429
Cannonball 2la
Planetary .4j..f4 Aj..2
Components, Vectors 34, 348,3..6.8.
Conventions 21
Exponents 21
Multiplication Sign 21
Units 22
Vectors .12.
Coordinate System
Gravitation .4.q5.
Gravity 404
Gravity Equations 14_
Coulomb’s Law 3.0.4
D
Dark Energy 281,28.4
Dark Matter 273, 281
Definitions
Center of Gravity 235
Center of Mass 351
Deflection of Light Rays 261
Densi Ty of Earth .12.6
Derivations 69
Gravitation
Escape Velocity 446
Gravitational Constant 328
Length of Year .4l2
Orbiting Center of Mass 3.2..q
Potential Energy at Infinity Ill
Gravity
Artillery Displacement 203
Displacement-time .8..l
Displacement -velocity 86
Gravity Constant 45
Velocity-time 1fl
Derivative Ll~.82.
Direction Convention
Gravitational Motion 404
Gravi Ty Equations J..2
Displacement ..3.l
Derivations
Displacement- Time .81
Displacement- Velocity 86
Equations 93, 1] 3, 134
Falling Objects 101
Projected Downward 121
Projected Upward L.4..5.
Vector Definition .4.0.
Distance
Displacement .3q.
Total L.5d.
Doppler Effect 2..8..1
Double Stars J..24.
E
Earth
Escape Velocity 222
Ma Ss .4.6_q_
Orbit Around Sun 413
Earth Bulge 3’34
Einstein, Albert 227, 246, 270
Einstein Equivalence Principle 300
Einstein Field Equations 305
Electromagnetic Force 289
Electrostatic Forces 303
Elliptical Orbit
Large 431
Elliptical Orbits 2u
Elliptical Path
Small 429
Energy
Dark 281
Falling Objects Ill
Objects Projected Downward L62
Objects Projected Upward Ill
Equations
Falling Objects 91,.21
Displacement 101
Time Lilii
Velocity 96
Projected Downward 111, 113
Displacement 121
Time 126
484 Gravity and Gravitation
Copynghted Mater Aindex
Velocity 116
Projected Upward 131, 133
Displacement Ja5.
Timc 155
Velocity 137
Equivalence Principle
Experimental Verification .5.l
Gravity .5.1
Strong 300
Types of Mass 22.8
Weak 22i
Escape Velocity
Black Hole _465_
Derivation 446
Effect of Sun on Earth 460
Equation 437,450
Escape From Moon 442
Escape From Sun 4.43.
Examples 441
Gravitational 435, 437
Gravity 2l2_
Potential Energy 3l6_
Saturn V Rocket 453
Exponents, Convention 21
General Theory of Relativity 227,
253,~2.1!l
Geometric Visualization .3.5.
Gravitation 20, 243
Applications 3.l..9.
Coordina Tc Sy Stem A05.
Direction Convention 404
Effect of Dark Matter 281
Electrostatic Forces .3..q1
Equivalence Principles .22.5
Escape Velocity 437
Force 260
Fundamental Force 288
Overview 245
Principles 293
Properties 245
Quantum Theory 276
Speed 261
Theories 246, 250
Tides on Earth _3_3_8_
Universe 333
Gravitational
Force 290,321
Mass 55,222
Potential Energy 312
Speed 271, 3d1
Gravitomagnetism 305
Graviton 278, Jill
Gravity L2…15
Acceleration Constant .il
Applications L6..5.
Artificial Gravity 221.
Artillery Projectile 100
Center of Gravity 235
Coordinate System 404
Equivalence Principle .5.l
Escape Velocity .2l2.
Force Equation 28, 248
Gravity Constant 45
Horizontal Motion 63
Inertia and Gravity L.8_4_
Mass and Weight 55
F
F Ailing Objects
Displacement 101
Equations 91,21
Time Lq6
Velocity 96
Force of Attraction
Boy and Girl .322
Earth and Moon .3..2l
Girl and Moon 323
Free Fall Principle .5.l
Fundamental Forces 277, 288
G
Galaxies, Formation 111
Galileo 53, 258
Gravity and Gravitation 485
Copynghted Mater Aindex
Moon 3d.
Newton’s Cannon 2ll
Potential Energy L61
Sideways Motion L5l4_
Variation With Altitude 48
Vectors 3.1
Work and Gravity 175, L.8.4.
H
Henry Cavendish 264,.126
High Tide 339
Iiofava Gravitation 214
Hooke, Robert 258
Iiorizontal Displacement Al
Horizontal Motion 63, L5l4_
Howitzer 200
Hyperbolic Path ~ 432
I
Inertia L.15.
Inertial Mass 57, 298
Infinite Speed .10_8
Integral Sign 78. 83
Integrate 11
International Space Station 227
Isaac Newton 211, 258, 264, 32_6_
J
Jupiter Orbits Sun 415
K
Kepler’s Laws 258,.3.d..8.
Kinetic Energy 168, 315, 448
Knowledge Needed .21
Kurtus, Ron 490
L
Law of Universal Gravitation 28, 252,
258, Mj.q1
Law Opposed to Theory 252
Laws of Motion 258
Leaning Tower of Pisa .51
Length of Year .4l..2
Lc Verier, Urbain .10_8
Light, Deflection 212.
Location, Center of Mass J.5..8.
Loop Quantum Gravity Theory 21&
Luminosity .2.&2.
M
Magnitude, Vectors .3a
Mass
Earth A6o.
Gravitational 55
Inertial 57
Measuring 56
Sun 461
Unit 55
Weight 55
Mass, Center of 344
Matter, Dark 281
Maximum Displacement
Artillery 203
Time 148, 156, 158
Velocity 140, L46_
Maxwell’s Field Equations 305
Measuring
Gravitational Constant 327
Mass 56
Doppler Effect .2e2.
Luminosity .2.&2.
Weight ~
Mercury, Orbit ~ 3d.&
Moon, Escape Velocity 221
Moon Orbits Earth 336, Ill
Mortar Artillery 207
Motion Projected at Angle 66
Multiplication, Convention 21
486 Gravity and Gravitation
Copynghted Mater Aindex
N
Nasa Space Program 453
Newton, Isaac 252, 258, 264, J.26
Newton’s Cannon 211,430
Nuclear Forces 288
O
Orbital Motion .188.
Cannonball 2l3.
Circular Planetary .4lo.
Conditions 335
Length of Year ..4..l2
Mercury 212
Period .42l
Relative to Other Object _3_2.8_
Velocity 419,428
Oscillation Period 330
Overviews
Center of Mass 346
Escape Velocity 437
Falling Objects 21
Force of Gravity 28
Gravitation 245
Gravity Equation Derivations N
Objects Projected Downward 113
Objects Projected Upward 133
Theories of Gravitation 252
P
Parabolic Path 429,431
Planets, [ormation 333
Potential Energy 447
Gravitational 312
Gravity 162
Principia Mathematica 258
Principles, Gravitation .2.21
Proj Ected Downward
Displacement 121
Equations Ill, 113
Time 126
Velocity 116
Projected Upward
Displacement L4.5.
Equations 131,133
Time 155
Velocity 137
Projectile Path 202
Properties of Gravitation 245
Purposes of Book 2.1
Pythagorean Theorem ~.6.5.
Q
Quadratic Equation 83
Quantum Theories 254
Gravitation 276,.3q1
Mechanics 276
R
Radial Motion
Component 348,.3.1q
Effect of Tangential 378
Expansion of Universe Xn_
Gravitational 374
Radius of Black Hole 467
Red-shift 273
Relative Motion 3m
Relativity
Deflection of Light 212
General Theory 21s1
Special Theory 21fl
Resources
Books Ill
Websites 475
Ron Kurtus 490
S
Saturn V Rocket 453
Scalars
Gravitation .4..0.6.
Gravity 3fi
School [or Champions 490,492
Gravity and Gravitation 487
Copynghted Mater Aindex
Schwarzschild Radius A65.
Scientific
Method 21
Notation 22
Shooting Bullet L.9]_
Sideways Motion L.2.4
Significant Figures 22
Space Station Ill..
Spacetime 271
Special Theory of Relativity Jd.2
Speed of Gravitation 271, J..q1
Speed Versus Velocity J.6
Stars, Formation Ill
String Theory 278, 288, _lo_2
Strong Equivalence Principle 300
Strong Force 288
Summary of Book 471
Sun
Escape Velocity 223
Mass 461, A6_8
T
Tangential Motion 3.8l
Component 348, 371
Effect of Radial Velocity 385
Orbi Ts _l2_8_
Theories
General Relativity 253, ~j..q1
Gravitation 246, 250
Quantum Theory 276
Special Relativity 2jjj.
Standard Model 288
String 288
Tidal Configuration 340
Thought Experiment Ill
Tides on Earth
From Moon J.3.&
From Moon and Sun 341
Time
Deri Vations
Displacement- Time Si
Velocity-time ]_6_
Time Equations 94, 114, 135
Falling Objects Lq6_
Maximum Displacement 138, 156
Objects Projected Downward 126
Objects Projected Upward 155
Torsion
Balance 3.26.
Coefficient 329
Total Distance L.5.q
Total Work 190
Translunar Injection 454
U
Unit of Mass 55
Units, Convention 22
Universal Gravitation
Constant 264,420,447, _46__q_
Equation 247,252,260,264, 321,
32_6
Law 252,258
Universe 3’33
V
Vectors
Components 34
Convention for Direction 3.l
Displacement .4q
Explanation 64
Gravitation .4..0..6.
Gravity Direction .12
Horizontal Velocity 63
Velocity 41
Velocity
Components .2..illl
Derivations
Displacement- Velocity 86
Velocity-time 1fl
Equations 133
Escape Velocity 435
Black Hole .4_6.5_
Derivation 446
488 Gravity and Gravitation
Copynghted Mater Aindex
Effect of Sun .46q
Gravitational 437
Saturn V Rocket 453
Velocity Equations Ll113
Falling Objects 96
Projected Downward 116
Projected Upward 137
Velocity, Center of Mass 360
Vertical
Displacement .40.
Vectors .11
W
Wave-particle Duality 255, 277
Weak Equivalence Principle 51,225.
Wcak Force 289
Weight
Mass 55
Measuring I2_
On the Moon 61
Weightlessness 22]_
Work
Against Gravity 185
Against Inertia 175, 186
As Change in Energy J:ll
As Force Times Distance L15_
By Gravity L1i
Definition L.8.4
Ending at Zero Velocity 189
Projecting Object Upward Li.l 187
Z
Zwiky, Fritz 281
Gravity and Gravitation 489
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