Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering – An Integrated Approach – 3rd Edition

Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering – An Integrated Approach – 3rd Edition
William D. Callister, Jr.
Department of Metallurgical Engineering
The University of Utah
David G. Rethwisch
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering
The University of Iowa
Contents
LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiii
1 Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
1.1 Historical Perspective 2
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5
1.4 Classification of Materials 5
1.5 Advanced Materials 10
1.6 Modern Materials Needs 13
References 14
Questions 14
2 Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15
Learning Objectives 16
2.1 Introduction 16
ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16
2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16
2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17
2.4 The Periodic Table 23
ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 27
2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 31
2.8 Molecules 34
Summary 34
Important Terms and Concepts 35
References 35
Questions and Problems 35
3 Structures of Metals and Ceramics 37
Learning Objectives 38
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 Fundamental Concepts 38

• xvxvi • Contents
  CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 38
  3.3 Unit Cells 39
  3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 40
  3.5 Density Computations—
  Metals 44
  3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 45
  3.7 Density Computations—
  Ceramics 52
  3.8 Silicate Ceramics 54
  3.9 Carbon 58
  3.10 Polymorphism and
  Allotropy 61
  3.11 Crystal Systems 61
  CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS,
  DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 64
  3.12 Point Coordinates 64
  3.13 Crystallographic Directions 66
  3.14 Crystallographic Planes 70
  3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 75
  3.16 Close-Packed Crystal
  Structures 77
  CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE
  MATERIALS 80
  3.17 Single Crystals 80
  3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 80
  3.19 Anisotropy 82
  3.20 X-Ray Diffraction:
  Determination of Crystal
  Structures 83
  3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 87
  Summary 89
  Important Terms and Concepts 91
  References 92
  Questions and Problems 92
  4 Polymer Structures 97
  Learning Objectives 98
  4.1 Introduction 98
  4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 98
  4.3 Polymer Molecules 100
  4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer
  Molecules 101
  4.5 Molecular Weight 106
  4.6 Molecular Shape 108
  4.7 Molecular Structure 109
  4.8 Molecular Configurations 111
  4.9 Thermoplastic and
  Thermosetting Polymers 115
  4.10 Copolymers 116
  4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 117
  4.12 Polymer Crystals 121
  Summary 123
  Important Terms and Concepts 124
  References 124
  Questions and Problems 125
  5 Imperfections in Solids 127
  Learning Objectives 128
  5.1 Introduction 128
  POINT DEFECTS 128
  5.2 Point Defects in Metals 128
  5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 130
  5.4 Impurities in Solids 133
  5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 136
  5.6 Specification of
  Composition 136
  MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 140
  5.7 Dislocations—Linear
  Defects 140
  5.8 Interfacial Defects 144
  5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 147
  5.10 Atomic Vibrations 147
  MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 149
  5.11 General 149
  5.12 Microscopic Techniques 150
  5.13 Grain Size Determination 155
  Summary 156
  Important Terms and Concepts 158
  References 158
  Questions and Problems 158
  6 Diffusion 161
  Learning Objectives 162
  6.1 Introduction 162
  6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 163
  6.3 Steady-State Diffusion 165
  6.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 167
  6.5 Factors That Influence
  Diffusion 171
  6.6 Other Diffusion Paths 177
  6.7 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric
  Materials 177
  Summary 181
  Important Terms and Concepts 182
  References 182
  Questions and Problems 182Contents • xvii
  7 Mechanical Properties 186
  Learning Objectives 187
  7.1 Introduction 187
  7.2 Concepts of Stress and
  Strain 188
  ELASTIC DEFORMATION 192
  7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 192
  7.4 Anelasticity 196
  7.5 Elastic Properties
  of Materials 196
  MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—METALS 199
  7.6 Tensile Properties 200
  7.7 True Stress and Strain 207
  7.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic
  Deformation 210
  7.9 Compressive, Shear, and
  Torsional Deformation 211
  MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—
  CERAMICS 211
  7.10 Flexural Strength 211
  7.11 Elastic Behavior 213
  7.12 Influence of Porosity on the
  Mechanical Properties of
  Ceramics 213
  MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—
  POLYMERS 214
  7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 215
  7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 217
  7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 218
  HARDNESS AND OTHER
  MECHANICAL PROPERTY
  CONSIDERATIONS 222
  7.16 Hardness 222
  7.17 Hardness of Ceramic
  Materials 228
  7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness
  of Polymers 228
  PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND
  DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 229
  7.19 Variability of Material
  Properties 229
  7.20 Design/Safety Factors 232
  Summary 233
  Important Terms
  and Concepts 235
  References 235
  Questions and Problems 236
  8 Deformation and
  Strengthening
  Mechanisms 242
  Learning Objectives 243
  8.1 Introduction 243
  DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR
  METALS 243
  8.2 Historical 244
  8.3 Basic Concepts of
  Dislocations 244
  8.4 Characteristics of
  Dislocations 246
  8.5 Slip Systems 248
  8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 250
  8.7 Plastic Deformation of
  Polycrystalline Metals 253
  8.8 Deformation by Twinning 255
  MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN
  METALS 256
  8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size
  Reduction 257
  8.10 Solid-Solution
  Strengthening 259
  8.11 Strain Hardening 260
  RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND
  GRAIN GROWTH 263
  8.12 Recovery 264
  8.13 Recrystallization 264
  8.14 Grain Growth 269
  DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR
  CERAMIC MATERIALS 270
  8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 271
  8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 271
  MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION
  AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF
  POLYMERS 272
  8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline
  Polymers 272
  8.18 Factors That Influence the
  Mechanical Properties of
  Semicrystalline Polymers 274
  8.19 Deformation of
  Elastomers 278
  Summary 281
  Important Terms and
  Concepts 283
  References 283
  Questions and Problems 284xviii • Contents
  9 Failure 288
  Learning Objectives 289
  9.1 Introduction 289
  FRACTURE 289
  9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 289
  9.3 Ductile Fracture 290
  9.4 Brittle Fracture 293
  9.5 Principles of Fracture
  Mechanics 293
  9.6 Brittle Fracture of
  Ceramics 304
  9.7 Fracture of Polymers 308
  9.8 Impact Fracture
  Testing 309
  FATIGUE 314
  9.9 Cyclic Stresses 315
  9.10 The S–N Curve 317
  9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric
  Materials 319
  9.12 Crack Initiation and
  Propagation 320
  9.13 Factors that Affect Fatigue
  Life 322
  9.14 Environmental Effects 325
  CREEP 326
  9.15 Generalized Creep
  Behavior 326
  9.16 Stress and Temperature
  Effects 328
  9.17 Data Extrapolation
  Methods 329
  9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature
  Use 331
  9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric
  Materials 331
  Summary 332
  Important Terms and Concepts 334
  References 334
  Questions and Problems 335
  10 Phase Diagrams 339
  Learning Objectives 340
  10.1 Introduction 340
  DEFINITIONS AND BASIC
  CONCEPTS 340
  10.2 Solubility Limit 341
  10.3 Phases 341
  10.4 Microstructure 342
  10.5 Phase Equilibria 342
  10.6 One-Component (or Unary)
  Phase Diagrams 343
  BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 345
  10.7 Binary Isomorphous
  Systems 345
  10.8 Interpretation of Phase
  Diagrams 347
  10.9 Development of Microstructure
  in Isomorphous Alloys 351
  10.10 Mechanical Properties of
  Isomorphous Alloys 355
  10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 356
  10.12 Development of Microstructure
  in Eutectic Alloys 361
  10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having
  Intermediate Phases or
  Compounds 369
  10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic
  Reactions 371
  10.15 Congruent Phase
  Transformations 372
  10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 373
  10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 378
  10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 378
  THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 380
  10.19 The Iron–Iron Carbide
  (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 380
  10.20 Development of Microstructure
  in Iron–Carbon Alloys 384
  10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying
  Elements 391
  Summary 392
  Important Terms and Concepts 394
  References 394
  Questions and Problems 394
  11 Phase Transformations 400
  Learning Objectives 401
  11.1 Introduction 401
  PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
  IN METALS 401
  11.2 Basic Concepts 402
  11.3 The Kinetics of Phase
  Transformations 402
  11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium
  States 413Contents • xix
  MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY
  CHANGES IN IRON–CARBON
  ALLOYS 414
  11.5 Isothermal Transformation
  Diagrams 414
  11.6 Continuous Cooling
  Transformation Diagrams 426
  11.7 Mechanical Behavior of
  Iron–Carbon Alloys 430
  11.8 Tempered Martensite 434
  11.9 Review of Phase
  Transformations and Mechanical
  Properties for Iron–Carbon
  Alloys 437
  PRECIPITATION HARDENING 438
  11.10 Heat Treatments 441
  11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 443
  11.12 Miscellaneous
  Considerations 446
  CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS
  TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS
  447
  11.13 Crystallization 447
  11.14 Melting 448
  11.15 The Glass Transition 448
  11.16 Melting and Glass Transition
  Temperatures 449
  11.17 Factors That Influence Melting
  and Glass Transition
  Temperatures 450
  Summary 452
  Important Terms and Concepts 454
  References 454
  Questions and Problems 454
  12 Electrical Properties 460
  Learning Objectives 461
  12.1 Introduction 461
  ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 461
  12.2 Ohm’s Law 461
  12.3 Electrical Conductivity 462
  12.4 Electronic and Ionic
  Conduction 463
  12.5 Energy Band Structures in
  Solids 463
  12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band
  and Atomic Bonding
  Models 466
  12.7 Electron Mobility 467
  12.8 Electrical Resistivity of
  Metals 469
  12.9 Electrical Characteristics of
  Commercial Alloys 471
  SEMICONDUCTIVITY 474
  12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 474
  12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 477
  12.12 The Temperature Dependence
  of Carrier Concentration 481
  12.13 Factors That Affect Carrier
  Mobility 483
  12.14 The Hall Effect 488
  12.15 Semiconductor Devices 489
  ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC
  CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS 496
  12.16 Conduction in Ionic
  Materials 497
  12.17 Electrical Properties of
  Polymers 497
  DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 498
  12.18 Capacitance 498
  12.19 Field Vectors and
  Polarization 500
  12.20 Types of Polarization 504
  12.21 Frequency Dependence of the
  Dielectric Constant 505
  12.22 Dielectric Strength 506
  12.23 Dielectric Materials 507
  OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
  OF MATERIALS 507
  12.24 Ferroelectricity 507
  12.25 Piezoelectricity 508
  Summary 509
  Important Terms and Concepts 511
  References 511
  Questions and Problems 512
  13 Types and Applications of
  Materials 516
  Learning Objectives 517
  13.1 Introduction 517
  TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 517
  13.2 Ferrous Alloys 517
  13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 530
  TYPES OF CERAMICS 540
  13.4 Glasses 541
  13.5 Glass–Ceramics 541xx • Contents
  13.6 Clay Products 543
  13.7 Refractories 543
  13.8 Abrasives 545
  13.9 Cements 546
  13.10 Advanced Ceramics 547
  13.11 Diamond and Graphite 550
  TYPES OF POLYMERS 552
  13.12 Plastics 552
  13.13 Elastomers 552
  13.14 Fibers 557
  13.15 Miscellaneous
  Applications 557
  13.16 Advanced Polymeric
  Materials 559
  Summary 563
  Important Terms and Concepts 565
  References 565
  Questions and Problems 566
  14 Synthesis, Fabrication, and
  Processing of Materials 568
  Learning Objectives 569
  14.1 Introduction 569
  FABRICATION OF METALS 569
  14.2 Forming Operations 569
  14.3 Casting 571
  14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 573
  THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 574
  14.5 Annealing Processes 575
  14.6 Heat Treatment of Steels 577
  FABRICATION OF CERAMIC
  MATERIALS 589
  14.7 Fabrication and Processing
  of Glasses and Glass–
  Ceramics 589
  14.8 Fabrication and Processing
  of Clay Products 594
  14.9 Powder Pressing 600
  14.10 Tape Casting 602
  SYNTHESIS AND FABRICATION OF
  POLYMERS 603
  14.11 Polymerization 603
  14.12 Polymer Additives 606
  14.13 Forming Techniques for
  Plastics 607
  14.14 Fabrication of Elastomers 610
  14.15 Fabrication of Fibers and
  Films 610
  Summary 612
  Important Terms and Concepts 613
  References 614
  Questions and Problems 614
  15 Composites 617
  Learning Objectives 618
  15.1 Introduction 618
  PARTICLE-REINFORCED
  COMPOSITES 620
  15.2 Large–Particle Composites 620
  15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened
  Composites 624
  FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 625
  15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 625
  15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation
  and Concentration 626
  15.6 The Fiber Phase 635
  15.7 The Matrix Phase 637
  15.8 Polymer-Matrix
  Composites 637
  15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 644
  15.10 Ceramic-Matrix
  Composites 645
  15.11 Carbon–Carbon
  Composites 646
  15.12 Hybrid Composites 647
  15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced
  Composites 648
  STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 650
  15.14 Laminar Composites 651
  15.15 Sandwich Panels 651
  Summary 654
  Important Terms and Concepts 656
  References 656
  Questions and Problems 656
  16 Corrosion and Degradation
  of Materials 660
  Learning Objectives 661
  16.1 Introduction 661
  CORROSION OF METALS 661
  16.2 Electrochemical
  Considerations 662
  16.3 Corrosion Rates 670
  16.4 Prediction of Corrosion
  Rates 671
  16.5 Passivity 678Contents • xxi
  16.6 Environmental Effects 680
  16.7 Forms of Corrosion 680
  16.8 Corrosion Environments 688
  16.9 Corrosion Prevention 689
  16.10 Oxidation 691
  CORROSION OF CERAMIC
  MATERIALS 694
  16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 695
  16.12 Bond Rupture 697
  16.13 Weathering 699
  Summary 699
  Important Terms and Concepts 701
  References 701
  Questions and Problems 701
  17 Thermal Properties 705
  Learning Objectives 706
  17.1 Introduction 706
  17.2 Heat Capacity 706
  17.3 Thermal Expansion 708
  17.4 Thermal Conductivity 711
  17.5 Thermal Stresses 716
  Summary 718
  Important Terms and Concepts 719
  References 719
  Questions and Problems 719
  18 Magnetic Properties 722
  Learning Objectives 723
  18.1 Introduction 723
  18.2 Basic Concepts 723
  18.3 Diamagnetism and
  Paramagnetism 727
  18.4 Ferromagnetism 729
  18.5 Antiferromagnetism and
  Ferrimagnetism 731
  18.6 The Influence of Temperature
  on Magnetic Behavior 735
  18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 736
  18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 740
  18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 741
  18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 744
  18.11 Magnetic Storage 747
  18.12 Superconductivity 750
  Summary 753
  Important Terms and
  Concepts 755
  References 755
  Questions and Problems 755
  19 Optical Properties 759
  Learning Objectives 760
  19.1 Introduction 760
  BASIC CONCEPTS 760
  19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 760
  19.3 Light Interactions With
  Solids 762
  19.4 Atomic and Electronic
  Interactions 763
  OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS 764
  OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF
  NONMETALS 765
  19.5 Refraction 765
  19.6 Reflection 767
  19.7 Absorption 768
  19.8 Transmission 771
  19.9 Color 772
  19.10 Opacity and Translucency in
  Insulators 774
  APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL
  PHENOMENA 775
  19.11 Luminescence 775
  19.12 Photoconductivity 775
  19.13 Lasers 778
  19.14 Optical Fibers in
  Communications 781
  Summary 785
  Important Terms and Concepts 787
  References 787
  Questions and Problems 787
  20 Economic, Environmental,
  and Societal Issues in
  Materials Science and
  Engineering 789
  Learning Objectives 790
  20.1 Introduction 790
  ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 790
  20.2 Component Design 791
  20.3 Materials 791
  20.4 Manufacturing Techniques 791
  ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL
  CONSIDERATIONS 792
  20.5 Recycling Issues in Materials
  Science and Engineering 794
  Summary 797
  References 798
  Design Questions 798xxii • Contents
  Appendix A The International
  System of Units (SI) 799
  Appendix B Properties of Selected
  Engineering Materials 801
  B.1 Density 801
  B.2 Modulus of Elasticity 804
  B.3 Poisson’s Ratio 808
  B.4 Strength and Ductility 809
  B.5 Plane Strain Fracture
  Toughness 814
  B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal
  Expansion 815
  B.7 Thermal Conductivity 819
  B.8 Specific Heat 822
  B.9 Electrical Resistivity 824
  B.10 Metal Alloy
  Compositions 827
  Appendix C Costs and Relative
  Costs for Selected Engineering
  Materials 829
  Appendix D Repeat Unit
  Structures for Common
  Polymers 834
  Appendix E Glass Transition
  and Melting Temperatures for
  Common Polymeric
  Materials 838
  Glossary 839
  Answers to Selected
  Problems 855
  Index 859List of Symbols
  The number of the section in which a symbol is introduced or explained is given in
  parentheses.
  A = area
  ◦A
  = angstrom unit
  Ai = atomic weight of element i (2.2)
  APF = atomic packing factor (3.4)
  a = lattice parameter: unit cell x-axial
  length (3.4)
  a = crack length of a surface crack (9.5)
  at% = atom percent (5.6)
  B = magnetic flux density (induction) (18.2)
  Br = magnetic remanence (18.7)
  BCC = body-centered cubic crystal structure
  (3.4)
  b = lattice parameter: unit cell y-axial
  length (3.11)
  b = Burgers vector (5.7)
  C = capacitance (12.18)
  C i = concentration (composition) of
  component i in wt% (5.6)
  C ′
  i = concentration (composition) of
  component i in at% (5.6)
  Cv, Cp = heat capacity at constant volume,
  pressure (17.2)
  CPR = corrosion penetration rate (16.3)
  CVN = Charpy V-notch (9.8)
  %CW = percent cold work (8.11)
  c = lattice parameter: unit cell z-axial
  length (3.11)
  cv, cp = specific heat at constant volume,
  pressure (17.2)
  D = diffusion coefficient (6.3)
  D = dielectric displacement (12.19)
  DP = degree of polymerization (4.5)
  d = diameter
  d = average grain diameter (8.9)
  dhkl = interplanar spacing for planes of
  Miller indices h, k, and l (3.20)
  E = energy (2.5)
  E = modulus of elasticity or Young’s
  modulus (7.3)
  e = electric field intensity (12.3)
  Ef = Fermi energy (12.5)
  E
  g = band gap energy (12.6)
  Er(t) = relaxation modulus (7.15)
  %EL = ductility, in percent elongation (7.6)
  e = electric charge per electron (12.7)
  e– = electron (16.2)
  erf = Gaussian error function (6.4)
  exp = e, the base for natural logarithms
  F = force, interatomic or mechanical
  (2.5, 7.2)
  f = Faraday constant (16.2)
  FCC = face-centered cubic crystal
  structure (3.4)
  G = shear modulus (7.3)
  H = magnetic field strength (18.2)
  Hc = magnetic coercivity (18.7)
  HB = Brinell hardness (7.16)
  HCP = hexagonal close-packed crystal
  structure (3.4)
  HK = Knoop hardness (7.16)
  HRB, HRF = Rockwell hardness: B and F scales
  (7.16)
• xxiiixxiv • List of Symbols
  HR15N, HR45W = superficial Rockwell
  hardness: 15N and 45W scales
  (7.16)
  HV = Vickers hardness (7.16)
  h = Planck’s constant (19.2)
  (hkl ) = Miller indices for a
  crystallographic plane (3.14)
  I = electric current (12.2)
  I = intensity of electromagnetic
  radiation (19.3)
  i = current density (16.3)
  iC = corrosion current density
  (16.4)
  J = diffusion flux (6.3)
  J = electric current density (12.3)
  Kc = fracture toughness (9.5)
  KIc = plane strain fracture
  toughness for mode I crack
  surface displacement (9.5)
  k = Boltzmann’s constant (5.2)
  k = thermal conductivity (17.4)
  l = length
  lc = critical fiber length (15.4)
  ln = natural logarithm
  log = logarithm taken to base 10
  M = magnetization (18.2)
  Mn = polymer number-average
  molecular weight (4.5)
  Mw = polymer weight-average
  molecular weight (4.5)
  mol% = mole percent
  N = number of fatigue cycles
  (9.10)
  NA = Avogadro’s number (3.5)
  Nf = fatigue life (9.10)
  n = principal quantum number
  (2.3)
  n = number of atoms per unit cell
  (3.5)
  n = strain-hardening exponent
  (7.7)
  n = number of electrons in an
  electrochemical reaction
  (16.2)
  n = number of conducting
  electrons per cubic meter
  (12.7)
  n = index of refraction (19.5)
  n′ = for ceramics, the number of
  formula units per unit cell
  (3.7)
  ni = intrinsic carrier (electron and
  hole) concentration (12.10)
  P = dielectric polarization (12.19)
  P–B ratio = Pilling–Bedworth ratio (16.10)
  p = number of holes per cubic
  meter (12.10)
  Q = activation energy
  Q = magnitude of charge stored
  (12.18)
  R = atomic radius (3.4)
  R = gas constant
  %RA = ductility, in percent reduction
  in area (7.6)
  r = interatomic distance (2.5)
  r = reaction rate (16.3)
  rA, rC = anion and cation ionic radii
  (3.6)
  S = fatigue stress amplitude (9.10)
  SEM = scanning electron microscopy
  or microscope
  T = temperature
  Tc = Curie temperature (18.6)
  TC = superconducting critical
  temperature (18.12)
  Tg
  = glass transition temperature
  (11.15)
  Tm = melting temperature
  TEM = transmission electron
  microscopy or microscope
  TS = tensile strength (7.6)
  t = time
  tr
  = rupture lifetime (9.15)
  Ur = modulus of resilience (7.6)
  [uvw] = indices for a crystallographic
  direction (3.13)
  V = electrical potential difference
  (voltage) (12.2)
  VC = unit cell volume (3.4)
  VC = corrosion potential (16.4)
  VH = Hall voltage (12.14)
  Vi = volume fraction of phase i
  (10.8)
  v = velocity
  vol% = volume percent
  Wi = mass fraction of phase i (10.8)
  wt% = weight percent (5.6)
  x = length
  x = space coordinate
  Y = dimensionless parameter or
  function in fracture toughness
  expression (9.5)List of Symbols • xxv
  y = space coordinate
  z = space coordinate
  α = lattice parameter: unit cell y–z
  interaxial angle (3.11)
  α, β, γ = phase designations
  αl = linear coefficient of thermal
  expansion (17.3)
  β = lattice parameter: unit cell x–z
  interaxial angle (3.11)
  γ = lattice parameter: unit cell x–y
  interaxial angle (3.11)
  γ = shear strain (7.2)
  1 = precedes the symbol of a parameter
  to denote finite change
  ² = engineering strain (7.2)
  ² = dielectric permittivity (12.18)
  ²r = dielectric constant or relative
  permittivity (12.18)
  ²s = steady-state creep rate (9.16)
  ²T = true strain (7.7)
  η = viscosity (8.16)
  η = overvoltage (16.4)
  θ = Bragg diffraction angle (3.20)
  θD = Debye temperature (17.2)
  λ = wavelength of electromagnetic
  radiation (3.20)
  μ = magnetic
  permeability (18.2)
  μB = Bohr magneton (18.2)
  μr = relative magnetic permeability
  (18.2)
  μe = electron mobility (12.7)
  μh = hole mobility (12.10)
  ν = Poisson’s ratio (7.5)
  ν = frequency of electromagnetic
  radiation (19.2)
  ρ = density (3.5)
  ρ = electrical resistivity (12.2)
  ρt = radius of curvature at the tip of a
  crack (9.5)
  σ = engineering stress, tensile or
  compressive (7.2)
  σ = electrical conductivity (12.3)
  σ* = longitudinal strength (composite)
  (15.5)
  σ c = critical stress for crack propagation
  (9.5)
  σf s = flexural strength (7.10)
  σm = maximum stress (9.5)
  σm = mean stress (9.9)
  σ ′
  m = stress in matrix at composite failure
  (15.5)
  σT = true stress (7.7)
  σw = safe or working stress (7.20)
  σy
  = yield strength (7.6)
  τ = shear stress (7.2)
  τ c = fiber–matrix bond strength/matrix
  shear yield strength (15.4)
  τcrss = critical resolved shear stress (8.6)
  χm = magnetic susceptibility (18.2)
  SUBSCRIPTS
  c = composite
  cd = discontinuous fibrous composite
  cl = longitudinal direction (aligned
  fibrous composite)
  ct = transverse direction (aligned
  fibrous composite)
  f = final
  f = at fracture
  f = fiber
  i = instantaneous
  m = matrix
  m, max = maximum
  min = minimum
  0 = original
  0 = at equilibrium
  0 = in a vacuum
  Index
  Page numbers in italics refer to the glossary.
  A
  Abrasive ceramics, 540, 545
  Abrasives, 839
  Absorption coefficient, 770
  Absorption of light:
  in metals, 764–765
  in nonmetals, 765–775
  Absorptivity, 763
  ABS polymer, 553
  AmBnXp crystal structures, 51
  Acceptors, 480, 839
  Acetic acid, 101
  Acetylene, 99
  Acid rain, as corrosion
  environment, 688
  Acids (organic), 101
  Acid slags, 544
  Acrylics, see Poly(methyl
  methacrylate)
  Acrylonitrile, see Polyacrylonitrile
  (PAN)
  Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber,
  556
  Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
  (ABS), 553
  Activation energy, 839
  for creep, 329
  for diffusion, 172, 406
  free, 404, 409
  for viscous flow, 615
  Activation polarization, 671–673,
  839
  Actuator, 12, 547
  Addition polymerization, 603–604,
  839
  Additives, polymer, 606–607
  Adhesives, 538, 839
  Adipic acid (structure), 605
  Adsorption, 148
  Advanced ceramics, 540, 547–550
  Advanced materials, 10
  Advanced polymers, 559–563
  Age hardening, see Precipitation
  hardening
  Air, as quenching medium, 581
  AISI/SAE steel designation
  scheme, 520
  Akermanite, 55
  Alcohols, 101
  Aldehydes, 101
  Alkali metals, 23–24
  Alkaline earth metals, 23–24
  Allotropic transformation
  (tin), 63
  Allotropy, 61, 839
  Alloys, 5, 839. See also Solid
  solutions; specific alloys
  atomic weight equations, 139
  cast, 530
  composition specification,
  136–137
  compositions for various, 827–828
  costs, 829–831
  defined, 133
  density equations, 139
  density values, 801–803
  ductility values, 809–811
  electrical resistivity values,
  824–825
  fracture toughness values, 300,
  814
  heat treatable, 531
  high-temperature, 331
  linear coefficient of thermal
  expansion values, 815–816
  low expansion, 712
  modulus of elasticity values,
  804–806
  Poisson’s ratio values, 808
  specific heat values, 822–823
  strengthening, see Strengthening
  of metals
  tensile strength values, 809–811
  thermal conductivity values,
  819–820
  wrought, 530
  yield strength values, 809–811
  Alloy steels, 423, 518, 839. See also
  Steels
  Alnico, 745
  α Iron, see Ferrite (α)
  Alternating copolymers, 116, 117,
  839
  Alumina, see Aluminum oxide
  Aluminosilicates, 595
  Aluminum:
  atomic radius and crystal
  structure, 40
  bonding energy and melting
  temperature, 28
  elastic and shear moduli, 193
  electrical conductivity, 469, 471
  electrical wires, 472–473
  for integrated circuit
  interconnects, 178–179
  Poisson’s ratio, 193
  recrystallization temperature,
  268
  slip systems, 249
  superconducting critical
  temperature, 752
  thermal properties, 709
  yield and tensile strengths,
  ductility, 205
  Aluminum alloys, 532–534
  fatigue behavior, 336
  plane strain fracture toughness,
  300, 814
  precipitation hardening, 443–445
  properties and applications, 534
• 859860 • Index
  Aluminum-copper alloys, phase
  diagram, 444
  Aluminum-lithium alloys, 533, 534
  Aluminum oxide:
  electrical conductivity, 496
  flexural strength, 205, 812
  hardness, 229
  index of refraction, 767
  modulus of elasticity, 193, 806
  plane strain fracture toughness,
  300, 814
  Poisson’s ratio, 193, 808
  sintered microstructure, 602
  stress-strain behavior, 213
  thermal properties, 709
  translucency, 4, 774
  as whiskers and fibers, 636
  Aluminum oxide-chromium oxide
  phase diagram, 375
  Ammonia, bonding energy and
  melting temperature, 28
  Amorphous materials, 38, 87–88,
  839
  Anelasticity, 196, 839
  Angle computation between two
  crystallographic directions, 252
  Anions, 45, 839
  Anisotropy, 82, 839
  of elastic modulus, 197, 822
  magnetic, 740–741, 743
  Annealing, 575, 576–577, 839
  ferrous alloys, 576–577
  glass, 593
  Annealing point, glass, 590, 839
  Annealing twins, 147
  Anodes, 662, 839
  area effect, galvanic corrosion,
  681
  sacrificial, 690, 850
  Antiferromagnetism, 731, 839
  temperature dependence, 735
  Aramid:
  fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix
  composites, 639–640
  melting and glass transition
  temperatures, 838
  properties as fiber, 636
  repeat unit structure, 639, 836
  Argon, bonding energy and
  melting temperature, 28
  Aromatic hydrocarbons (chain
  groups), 101, 450, 451
  Arrhenius equation, 411
  Artificial aging, 446, 839
  Asphaltic concrete, 623
  ASTM standards, 187
  Atactic configuration, 113, 839
  Athermal transformation, 423, 839
  Atomic bonding, see Bonding
  Atomic mass, 16
  Atomic mass unit (amu), 16–17,
  839
  Atomic models:
  Bohr, 17–18, 19, 840
  wave-mechanical, 18, 19, 853
  Atomic number, 16, 839
  Atomic packing factor, 41, 839
  Atomic point defects, 128, 130–131
  Atomic radii, of selected metals, 40
  Atomic structure, 16–24
  Atomic vibrations, 147, 149,
  706–707, 839
  Atomic weight, 16, 839
  metal alloys, equations for, 139
  Atom percent, 138, 840
  Austenite, 381, 840
  shape-memory phase
  transformations, 439–440
  transformations, 414–429
  summary, 437–438
  Austenitic stainless steels, 522, 523
  Austenitizing, 576, 840
  Average value, 230
  Avogadro’s number, 17
  Avrami equation, 412, 447
  AX crystal structures, 49–50
  A
  mXp crystal structures, 50–51
  B
  Bainite, 417–419, 426, 437, 840
  mechanical properties, 432–433
  Bakelite, see Phenol-formaldehyde
  (Bakelite)
  Ball bearings, ceramic, 549
  Band gap, 466–467
  Band gap energy, 840
  selected semiconductors, 474
  Bands, see Energy bands
  Barcol hardness, 229
  Barium titanate:
  crystal structure, 51, 508
  as dielectric, 507
  as ferroelectric, 507–508
  as piezoelectric, 509, 550
  Base (transistor), 492
  Basic refractories, 545
  Basic slags, 544
  Beachmarks (fatigue), 320
  Bend strength, 212. See also
  Flexural strength
  Beryllia, 545
  Beryllium-copper alloys, 531
  Beverage containers, 1, 789
  corrosion of, 789
  diffusion rate of CO2 through,
  180–181
  stages of production, 568
  Bifunctional repeat units, 105, 840
  Billiard balls, 516, 555
  Bimetallic strips, 720
  Binary eutectic alloys, 356–369
  Binary isomorphous alloys,
  345–355
  mechanical properties, 355
  microstructure development,
  equilibrium cooling, 351–353
  microstructure development,
  nonequilibrium cooling,
  353–355
  Biodegradable beverage can, 789
  Biomaterials, 11
  Block copolymers, 116, 117, 840
  Blowing, of glass, 591
  Blow molding, plastics, 610
  Body-centered cubic structure,
  41–42, 840
  Burgers vector for, 249
  slip systems, 249
  twinning in, 255–256
  Bohr atomic model, 17–18, 19,
  840
  Bohr magneton, 727, 840
  Boltzmann’s constant, 129, 840
  Bonding:
  carbon-carbon, 103
  cementitious, 546–547
  covalent, 28–29, 45, 841
  hybrid sp, 22
  hydrogen, 31, 32–33, 845
  ionic, 27–28, 45, 845
  metallic, 30, 847
  van der Waals, see van der Waals
  bonding
  Bonding energy, 26, 840
  and melting temperature for
  selected materials, 28
  Bonding forces, 24–25
  Bond rupture, in polymers,
  697–698
  Bone, as composite, 618
  Boron carbide:
  hardness, 229
  Boron:
  boron-doped silicon
  semiconductors, 479Index • 861
  fiber-reinforced composites, 640,
  644
  properties as a fiber, 636
  Borosilicate glass:
  composition, 541
  electrical conductivity, 496
  viscosity, 591
  Borsic fiber-reinforced composites,
  644
  Bottom-up science, 12
  Bragg’s law, 84–85, 840
  Branched polymers, 110, 111, 840
  Brass, 531, 532, 840
  annealing behavior, 267
  elastic and shear moduli, 193
  electrical conductivity, 469
  fatigue behavior, 336
  phase diagram, 369, 370
  Poisson’s ratio, 193
  recrystallization temperature, 268
  stress corrosion, 686
  stress-strain behavior, 202
  thermal properties, 709
  yield and tensile strengths,
  ductility, 205
  Brazing, 573, 840
  Breakdown, dielectric, 491, 507
  Brinell hardness tests, 224, 225
  Brittle fracture, 203, 288, 290,
  293–296, 840
  ceramics, 304–308
  Brittle materials, thermal shock,
  717–718
  Bronze, 531, 532, 840
  Bronze age, 2
  Buckminsterfullerene, 59
  Burgers vector, 141, 840
  for FCC, BCC, and HCP, 249
  magnitude computation, 284
  Butadiene:
  degradation resistance, 696
  melting and glass transition
  temperatures, 838
  repeat unit structure, 118,
  835
  Butane, 99–100
  C
  Cadmium sulfide:
  color, 772
  electrical characteristics, 474
  Calcination, 546, 840
  Calendering, 649
  Capacitance, 498–500, 840
  Capacitors, 499–504
  Carbon:
  vs. graphite, 636, 639
  polymorphism, 61
  Carbon black, as reinforcement in
  rubbers, 552, 554, 621–622
  Carbon-carbon composites,
  646–647, 840
  Carbon diffusion, in steels, 385, 435
  Carbon fiber-reinforced
  polymer-matrix composites,
  638–639, 640
  Carbon fibers, 638–639
  properties as fiber, 636
  Carbon nanotubes, 13, 60
  Carburizing, 166, 169, 840
  Case-hardened gear, 161
  Case hardening, 161, 324–325,
  840
  Cast alloys, 530
  Casting techniques:
  metals, 571–573
  plastics, 610
  slip, 596–597
  tape, 602
  Cast irons, 383, 518, 523–530, 840
  annealing, 577
  compositions, mechanical
  properties, and applications,
  527
  graphite formation in, 524
  heat treatment effect on
  microstructure, 528
  phase diagram, 524, 528
  Catalysts, 148
  Catalytic converters (automobiles),
  148
  Cathodes, 663, 840
  Cathodic protection, 682, 689–691,
  840
  Cations, 45, 840
  Cemented carbide, 621, 622
  Cementite, 381–383, 840
  decomposition, 524, 528
  proeutectoid, 388–389
  in white iron, 526, 528
  Cementitious bond, 546–547
  Cements, 540, 546–547, 840
  Ceramic ball bearings, 549
  Ceramic-matrix composites,
  645–646, 840
  Ceramics, 7–8, 840. See also Glass
  advanced, 547–550
  application-classification scheme,
  540
  brittle fracture, 304–308
  coefficient of thermal expansion
  values, 709, 817
  color, 772–773
  corrosion, 694
  costs, 831–832
  crystal structures, 45–52
  summary, 51
  defects, 130–133
  defined, 7–8
  density computation, 52–53
  density values, 803
  elastic modulus values, 193, 806
  electrical conductivity values for
  selected, 496
  electrical resistivity values, 826
  fabrication techniques
  classification, 589
  flexural strength values, 205, 812
  fractography of, 305–308
  fracture toughness values, 300,
  814–815
  impurities in, 135–136
  indices of refraction, 767
  as electrical insulators, 496, 507
  magnetic, 731–735
  mechanical properties of, 211–214
  in MEMS, 548
  phase diagrams, 373–377
  piezoelectric, 12, 550
  plastic deformation, 270–272
  Poisson’s ratio values, 193, 808
  porosity, 213–214, 601–602
  porosity, influence on properties,
  213–214
  silicates, 54–57
  specific heat values, 709, 823
  as superconductors, 753
  thermal conductivity values, 709,
  820
  thermal properties, 709, 711,
  714–715, 717–718
  traditional, 547
  translucency and opacity, 774
  Cercor (glass ceramic), 542
  Cermets, 621, 840
  Cesium chloride structure, 49
  Chain-folded model, 121, 122, 840
  Chain-reaction polymerization, see
  Addition polymerization
  Chain stiffening/stiffness, 109, 450,
  451
  Charge carriers:
  majority vs. minority, 479
  temperature dependence,
  481–483862 • Index
  Charpy impact test, 310–311, 841
  Chevron markings, 293
  Chips, semiconductor, 495
  Chlorine, bonding energy and
  melting temperature, 28
  Chloroprene, repeat unit structure,
  118, 835
  Chloroprene rubber:
  characteristics and applications,
  556
  melting and glass transition
  temperatures, 838
  Cis, 114, 841
  Clay, characteristics, 594–595
  Clay products, 540, 543
  drying and firing, 543, 597–599
  fabrication, 594–597
  Cleavage (brittle fracture), 293
  Clinker, 546
  Close-packed ceramic crystal
  structures, 79–80
  Close-packed metal crystal
  structures, 77–78
  Coarse pearlite, 417–418, 428, 841
  Coatings (polymer), 557
  Cobalt:
  atomic radius and crystal
  structure, 40
  Curie temperature, 735
  as ferromagnetic material, 729
  magnetization curves (single
  crystal), 741
  Coercivity (coercive force), 738,
  841
  Cold work, percent, 260
  Cold working, 841. See also Strain
  hardening
  Collector, 492–493
  Color, 841
  metals, 764–765
  nonmetals, 772–773
  Colorants, 607, 841
  Compacted graphite iron, 518, 526,
  529–530
  Compliance, creep, 222
  Component, 340, 378, 841
  Composites:
  aramid fiber-reinforced polymer,
  639–640
  carbon-carbon, 646–647, 840
  carbon fiber-reinforced polymer,
  638–639
  ceramic-matrix, 645–646
  classification scheme, 619–620
  costs, 833
  definition, 9, 618
  dispersion-strengthened, 624
  elastic behavior:
  longitudinal, 628–629
  transverse, 631
  fiber-reinforced, see
  Fiber-reinforced composites
  glass fiber-reinforced polymer,
  637–638
  hybrid, 647, 845
  laminar, 619, 635, 651, 846
  large-particle, 619, 620–624
  metal-matrix, 644–645
  particle-reinforced, 620–625
  production processes, 648–650
  properties, glass-, carbon-,
  aramid-fiber reinforced, 640
  rule of mixtures expressions, 620,
  629, 631, 632, 633, 634, 643
  strength:
  longitudinal, 632
  transverse, 633
  stress-strain behavior, 627–628
  structural, 650–652
  Composition, 841
  conversion equations, 138, 160
  specification of, 136–137
  Compression molding, plastics, 608
  Compression tests, 190
  Compressive deformation, 189, 211
  Computers, semiconductors in,
  494–496
  Concentration, 136, 841. See also
  Composition
  Concentration cells, 682
  Concentration gradient, 166, 841
  Concentration polarization,
  673–674, 841
  Concentration profile, 165, 841
  Concrete, 622–624, 841
  electrical conductivity, 496
  plane strain fracture toughness,
  300, 814
  Condensation polymerization, 605,
  841
  Conducting polymers, 497–498
  Conduction:
  electronic, 463
  ionic, 463, 497
  Conduction band, 465, 841
  Conductivity, see Electrical
  conductivity; Thermal
  conductivity
  Configuration, molecular, 111–113
  Conformation, molecular, 109
  Congruent phase transformations,
  372–373, 841
  Constitutional diagrams, see Phase
  diagrams
  Continuous casting, 572–573
  Continuous cooling transformation
  diagrams, 426–429, 841
  4340 steel, 429
  0.35 wt% C steel, 457
  0.76 wt% C steel, 427
  for glass-ceramic, 542
  Continuous fibers, 626
  Conventional hard magnetic
  materials, 745
  Conversion factors, magnetic units,
  726
  Cooling rate, of cylindrical rounds,
  583
  Coordinates, point, 64–66
  Coordination numbers, 41, 43,
  46–47, 54, 841
  Copolymers, 105, 116–117, 841
  styrenic block, 562–563
  Copper:
  atomic radius and crystal
  structure, 40
  elastic and shear moduli, 193
  electrical conductivity, 469
  OFHC, 471
  Poisson’s ratio, 193
  recrystallization, 268, 413
  slip systems, 249
  thermal properties, 709
  yield and tensile strengths,
  ductility, 205
  Copper alloys, 531–532
  properties and applications of,
  532
  Copper-aluminum phase diagram,
  444
  Copper-beryllium alloys, 472, 531
  phase diagram, 458
  Copper-nickel alloys:
  ductility vs. composition, 259, 355
  electrical conductivity, 470
  phase diagram, 345–346
  tensile strength vs. composition,
  259, 355
  yield strength vs. composition,
  259
  Copper-silver phase diagram, 356,
  379
  Coring, 355
  Corningware (glass ceramic), 542
  Corrosion, 841Index • 863
  of beverage cans, 789
  ceramic materials, 694
  electrochemistry of, 662–668
  environmental effects, 680
  environments, 688–689
  forms of, 680–688
  galvanic series, 669–670
  overview of, 661
  passivity, 678–679, 848
  rates, 670
  prediction of, 671–678
  Corrosion fatigue, 325–326, 841
  Corrosion inhibitors, 689
  Corrosion penetration rate, 670,
  841
  Corrosion prevention, 689–691
  Corundum, 545. See also
  Aluminum oxide
  crystal structure, 96
  Cost of various materials, 829–833
  Coulombic force, 27, 841
  Covalency, degree of, 29
  Covalent bonding, 28–29, 45–46,
  98, 841
  Crack configurations in ceramics,
  306
  Crack critical velocity, 306
  Crack formation, 290
  in ceramics, 306
  fatigue and, 320
  glass, 593
  Crack propagation, 290. See also
  Fracture mechanics
  in brittle fracture, 293
  in ceramics, 304–308
  in ductile fracture, 290–291
  fatigue and, 320–322
  Cracks:
  stable vs. unstable, 290
  Crack surface displacement modes,
  299, 300
  Crazing, 309
  Creep, 326–331, 841
  ceramics, 331
  influence of temperature and
  stress on, 328–329
  mechanisms, 329
  in polymers, 221–222, 331
  stages of, 326–327
  steady-state rate, 327
  viscoelastic, 221–222
  Creep compliance, 222
  Creep modulus, 222
  Creep rupture tests, 327
  data extrapolation, 329–330
  Crevice corrosion, 682–683, 841
  Cristobalite, 54, 377
  Critical cooling rate:
  ferrous alloys, 427–429
  glass-ceramics, 542
  Critical fiber length, 625–626
  Critical resolved shear stress, 250,
  841
  as related to dislocation density,
  285
  Critical stress (fracture), 297
  Critical temperature,
  superconductivity, 750, 752
  Critical velocity (crack), 306, 308
  Crosslinking, 110–111, 841
  elastomers, 278–279
  influence on viscoelastic
  behavior, 221
  thermosetting polymers, 116
  Crystalline materials, 38, 80, 841
  defects, 128–149
  single crystals, 80–81, 850
  Crystallinity, polymers, 117–121,
  841
  influence on mechanical
  properties, 276
  Crystallites, 121, 841
  Crystallization, polymers, 447–448
  Crystallographic directions, 66–70
  easy and hard magnetization, 741
  families, 68
  Crystallographic planes, 70–75
  atomic arrangements, 73–74
  close-packed, ceramics, 79–80
  close-packed, metals, 77–78
  diffraction by, 83–85
  families, 74
  Crystallographic point coordinates,
  64–66
  Crystal structures, 38–44, 842.
  See also Body-centered cubic
  structure; Close-packed crystal
  structures; Face-centered
  cubic structure; Hexagonal
  close-packed structure
  ceramics, 45–52
  close-packed, ceramics, 79–80
  close-packed, metals, 77–78
  determination by x-ray
  diffraction, 83–87
  selected metals, 40
  types, ceramics, 45–52, 79–80
  types, metals, 40–43, 77–78
  Crystallization (ceramics), 541, 594,
  841
  Crystal systems, 61–62, 842
  Cubic crystal system, 61, 62
  Cubic ferrites, 731–735
  Cunife, 745, 746
  Cup-and-cone fracture, 291
  Curie temperature, 735, 842
  ferroelectric, 507
  ferromagnetic, 708
  Curing, plastics, 608
  Current density, 462
  Cyclic stresses, 315–316
  D
  Damping capacity, steel vs. cast
  iron, 525, 528
  Data scatter, 229–230
  Debye temperature, 707, 708
  Decarburization, 166
  Defects, see also Dislocations
  atomic vibrations and, 147, 149
  dependence of properties on, 127
  in ceramics, 130–133, 135
  interfacial, 144–147
  point, 128–133, 848
  in polymers, 136, 137
  surface, 148
  volume, 147
  Defect structure, 130, 842
  Deformation:
  elastic, see Elastic deformation
  elastomers, 278–279
  plastic, see Plastic deformation
  Deformation mechanism maps
  (creep), 329
  Deformation mechanisms
  (semicrystalline polymers),
  elastic deformation, 272–273
  plastic deformations, 274, 275
  Degradation of polymers, 695–699,
  842
  Degree of polymerization, 107, 842
  Degrees of freedom, 378
  Delayed fracture, 304
  Density:
  computation for ceramics, 52–53
  computation for metal alloys,
  139
  computation for metals, 44–45
  computation for polymers, 120
  of dislocations, 246
  linear atomic, 75–76
  planar atomic, 76
  polymers (values for), 803–804
  ranges for material types (bar
  chart), 6864 • Index
  Density (continued)
  relation to percent crystallinity
  for polymers, 119
  values for various materials,
  801–804
  Design, component, 791
  Design examples:
  cold work and recrystallization,
  268–269
  conductivity of a p-type
  semiconductor, 486–487
  cubic mixed-ferrite magnet,
  734–735
  creep rupture lifetime for an
  S-590 steel, 330–331
  nonsteady-state diffusion,
  176–177
  spherical pressure vessel, failure
  of, 301–304
  steel shaft, alloy/heat treatment
  of, 586–587
  tensile-testing apparatus, 232–233
  tubular composite shaft, 641–644
  Design factor, 232
  Design stress, 232, 842
  Dezincification, of brass, 685
  Diamagnetism, 727–728, 842
  Diamond, 58, 550–551
  as abrasive, 545
  bonding energy and melting
  temperature, 28
  cost, 831
  films, 550–551
  hardness, 229
  thermal conductivity, 820
  Diamond cubic structure, 58
  Die casting, 572
  Dielectric breakdown, 491, 507
  Dielectric constant, 500, 842
  frequency dependence, 505–506
  relationship to refractive index,
  766
  selected ceramics and polymers,
  500
  Dielectric displacement, 501, 842
  Dielectric loss, 506
  Dielectric materials, 498, 507, 842
  Dielectric strength, 507, 842
  selected ceramics and polymers,
  500
  Diffraction (x-ray), 83–84, 842
  Diffraction angle, 86
  Diffractometers, 85
  Diffusion, 162–163, 842
  grain growth and, 269
  in ionic materials, 177
  in integrated circuit
  interconnects, 178–179
  in Si of Cu, Au, Ag, and Al, 178
  interstitial, 164, 845
  mechanisms, 163–164
  and microstructure development,
  351–355, 365–366
  nonsteady-state, 167–171, 847
  in polymers, 179–181
  short-circuit, 177
  steady-state, 165–167, 851
  vacancy, 164, 177, 853
  Diffusion coefficient, 166, 842
  relation to ionic mobility, 497
  temperature dependence,
  172–177
  values for various metal systems,
  171
  Diffusion couples, 162
  Diffusion flux, 165, 842
  for polymers, 179
  Digitization of information/signals,
  748–749, 783
  Dimethyl ether, 101
  Dimethylsiloxane, 118, 554–555,
  556, 835. See also Silicones;
  Silicone rubber
  melting and glass transition
  temperatures, 838
  Diode, 490, 842
  Dipole moment, 500
  Dipoles:
  electric, 31, 842
  induced, 31
  magnetic, 723–724
  permanent, 32
  Directional solidification, 331
  Directions, see Crystallographic
  directions
  Discontinuous fibers, 626
  Dislocation density, 246, 284, 285,
  842
  Dislocation etch pits, 242
  Dislocation line, 141, 142, 143,
  842
  Dislocation motion, 244–245
  caterpillar locomotion analogy,
  245–246
  in ceramics, 271
  at grain boundaries, 257–258
  influence on strength, 257
  recovery and, 264
  Dislocations, 140–144, 842
  in ceramics, 144, 246, 271
  characteristics of, 246–248
  interactions, 247
  multiplication, 248
  at phase boundaries, 430, 435
  pile-ups, 258
  plastic deformation and, 199,
  243–255, 256
  in polymers, 137, 144
  strain fields, 246–247
  Dispersed phase, 619, 842
  definition, 619
  geometry, 619
  Dispersion (optical), 759, 765
  Dispersion-strengthened
  composites, 624, 842
  Disposal of materials, 793–794
  Domain growth, 737–738
  iron single crystal, 722
  Domains, 730, 736–737, 742,
  842
  Domain walls, 736–737
  Donors, 477, 842
  Doping, 480, 483–484, 842
  Double bonds, 98–99
  Drain casting, 596
  Drawing:
  glass, 592
  influence on polymer properties,
  276–277
  metals, 571, 842
  polymer fibers, 610–611, 842
  Drift velocity, electron, 468
  Driving force, 166, 842
  electrochemical reactions, 665
  grain growth, 269
  recrystallization, 264
  sintering, 601
  steady-state diffusion, 166
  Dry corrosion, 691
  Drying, clay products, 597–598
  Ductile fracture, 203–204, 290–292,
  842
  Ductile iron, 525, 526, 842
  compositions, mechanical
  properties, and applications,
  527
  Ductile-to-brittle transition,
  311–314, 842
  polymers, 308
  and temper embrittlement, 437
  Ductility, 203–204, 842
  fine and coarse pearlite, 432
  precipitation hardened aluminum
  alloy, 445
  selected materials, 205, 809–813Index • 865
  spheroidite, 432
  tempered martensite, 436
  Durometer hardness, 226, 229
  E
  Economics, materials selection:
  considerations in materials
  engineering, 790–791
  tubular composite shaft, 641–644
  Eddy currents, 742
  Edge dislocations, 140, 244–245,

1. See also Dislocations
   interactions, 246–247
   in polymers, 137
   E-glass, 636, 637–638
   Elastic deformation, 192–199, 843
   Elastic modulus, see Modulus of
   elasticity
   Elastic (strain) recovery, 210, 843
   Elastomers, 215, 278–281, 552–557,
   610, 843
   in composites, 621
   deformation, 278–279
   thermoplastic, 561–563
   trade names, properties, and
   applications, 556
   Electrical conduction:
   in insulators and semiconductors,
   466–467
   in metals, 466
   Electrical conductivity, 462, 468,
   469, 841
   ranges for material types (bar
   chart), 8
   selected ceramics and polymers,
   496
   selected metals, 469
   selected semiconductors, 474
   temperature variation (Ge), 513
   values for electrical wires, 473
   Electrical resistivity, 461–462, 850.
   See also Electrical conductivity
   metals
   influence of impurities, 470
   influence of plastic deformation,
   470, 471
   influence of temperature,
   469–470
   values for various materials,
   824–827
   Electrical wires, aluminum and
   copper, 472–473
   Electric dipole moment, 501
   Electric dipoles, see Dipoles
   Electric field, 462, 468, 843
   Electrochemical cells, 664–665
   Electrochemical reactions, 662–670
   Electrodeposition, 664–665
   Electrode potentials, 664–665
   values of, 666
   Electroluminescence, 776, 843
   Electrolytes, 665, 843
   Electromagnetic radiation, 760–762
   interactions with atoms/electrons,
   763–764
   Electromagnetic spectrum,
   760–761
   Electron band structure, see
   Energy bands
   Electron cloud, 30
   Electron configurations, 21–23, 843
   elements, 22
   periodic table and, 23–24
   stable, 21
   Electronegativity, 24, 29, 843
   influence on solid solubility, 134
   values for the elements, 24
   Electroneutrality, 130, 843
   Electron gas, 466
   Electronic conduction, 463, 497
   Electronic polarization, 504, 550,
   763, 768, 848
   Electron microscopy, 150–153
   Electron mobility, 468
   influence of dopant content on,
   483–484
   influence of temperature on,
   484–485
   selected semiconductors, 474
   Electron orbitals, 17
   Electron probability distribution,
   18, 19
   Electrons, 16
   conduction process, 476, 492–493
   role, diffusion in ionic materials,
   177, 179
   energy bands, see Energy bands
   energy levels, 18–21
   free, see Free electrons
   scattering, 468, 707
   in semiconductors, 474–481
   temperature variation of
   concentration, 481–483
   spin, 19, 727
   valence, 21
   Electron states, 843
   Electron transitions, 763–764
   metals, 764–765
   nonmetals, 765–767
   Electron volt, 28, 843
   Electropositivity, 24, 843
   Electrorheological fluids, 12
   Elongation, percent, 203
   selected materials, 205, 809–813
   selected metals, 205
   selected polymers, 205
   Embrittlement:
   hydrogen, 687–688
   temper, 437
   Embryo, phase particle, 403–405
   Emf series, 665–666, 843
   Emitter, 492
   Endurance limit, 317. See also
   Fatigue limit
   Energy:
   activation, see Activation energy
   bonding, 26–28, 840
   current concerns about, 13,
   793–794
   free, 342, 343, 402–405, 844
   grain boundary, 145
   photon, 762
   surface, 144
   vacancy formation, 129
   Energy band gap, see Band gap
   Energy bands, 463–465
   structures for metals, insulators,
   and semiconductors, 464–465
   Energy levels (states), 17–20,
   463–464
   Energy and materials, 793
   Energy product, magnetic, 744–745
   Engineering stress/strain, 189–190,
   851
   Entropy, 279, 342, 402
   Environmental considerations and
   materials, 792–797
   Epoxies:
   degradation resistance, 696
   polymer-matrix composites,
   640–641
   repeat unit structure, 834
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 554
   Equilibrium:
   definition of, 342
   phase, 342–343, 843
   Equilibrium diagrams, see Phase
   diagrams
   Erosion-corrosion, 685–686, 843
   Error bars, 230–231
   Error function, Gaussian, 168
   Etching, 150, 151
   Etch pits, 242
   Ethane, 99866 • Index
   Ethers, 101
   Ethylene, 99
   polymerization, 101–102
   Ethylene glycol (structure), 605
   Euro coins, alloys used for, 539
   Eutectic isotherm, 357
   Eutectic phase, 366, 843
   Eutectic reactions, 357, 364, 843
   iron-iron carbide system, 381, 383
   Eutectic structure, 366, 843
   Eutectic systems:
   binary, 356–369
   microstructure development,
   361–369
   Eutectoid, shift of position,
   391–392
   Eutectoid ferrite, 387
   Eutectoid reactions, 371, 843
   iron-iron carbide system, 383
   kinetics, 414–416
   Eutectoid steel, microstructure
   changes/development,
   384–386
   Exchange current density, 672
   Excited states, 764, 843
   Exhaustion, in extrinsic
   semiconductors, 482
   Expansion, thermal, see Thermal
   expansion
   Extrinsic semiconductors, 477–481,
   843
   electron concentration vs.
   temperature, 482
   exhaustion, 482
   saturation, 482
   Extrusion, 843
   clay products, 596
   metals, 571
   polymers, 609–610
   F
   Fabrication:
   ceramics, 589–591
   clay products, 594–599
   fiber-reinforced composites,
   648–650
   metals, 569–574
   Face-centered cubic structure,
   40–41, 843
   anion stacking (ceramics), 79–80
   Burgers vector for, 249
   close packed planes (metals),
   77–79
   slip systems, 248
   Factor of safety, 232, 302
   Failure, mechanical, see Creep;
   Fatigue; Fracture
   Faraday constant, 667
   Fatigue, 314–326, 843
   corrosion, 325–326
   crack initiation and propagation,
   320–322
   cyclic stresses, 315–317
   environmental effects, 325–326
   low- and high-cycle, 319
   polymers, 319–320
   probability curves, 319
   thermal, 325
   Fatigue life, 318, 843
   factors that affect, 322–325
   Fatigue limit, 317, 318, 843
   Fatigue strength, 317, 318, 843
   Fatigue testing, 317
   S-N curves, 317–319, 320, 336
   Feldspar, 595
   Fermi energy, 465, 480, 708, 843
   Ferrimagnetism, 731–735, 843
   temperature dependence,
   735–736
   Ferrite (α), 380–382, 843
   eutectoid/proeutectoid, 339,
   387–388, 849
   from decomposition of cementite,
   524
   Ferrites (magnetic ceramics),
   731–733, 843
   Curie temperature, 735–736
   as magnetic storage, 748
   Ferritic stainless steels, 522, 523
   Ferroelectricity, 507–508, 843
   Ferroelectric materials, 507–508
   Ferromagnetic domain walls, 147
   Ferromagnetism, 729–730, 844
   temperature dependence,
   735–736
   Ferrous alloys, 844. See also Cast
   irons; Iron; Steels
   annealing, 575–577
   classification, 383, 518
   continuous cooling
   transformation diagrams,
   426–429
   costs, 829–830
   hypereutectoid, 388–391, 845
   hypoeutectoid, 386–388, 845
   isothermal transformation
   diagrams, 414–426
   microstructures, 384–391
   mechanical properties of,
   430–434, 809–810
   Fiber efficiency parameter, 634
   Fiberglass, 541
   Fiberglass-reinforced composites,
   637–638
   Fiber-reinforced composites,
   625–650, 844
   continuous and aligned, 627–633
   discontinuous and aligned,
   633–634
   discontinuous and randomly
   oriented, 634–635
   fiber length effect, 625–626
   fiber orientation/concentration
   effect, 626–635
   fiber phase, 635–637
   longitudinal loading, 627–631, 632
   matrix phase, 637
   processing, 648–650
   reinforcement efficiency, 635
   transverse loading, 631, 633–635
   Fibers, 557, 844
   coefficient of thermal expansion
   values, 818
   in composites, 619
   continuous vs. discontinuous,
   625–626
   fiber phase, 635–637
   length effect, 625–626
   orientation and concentration,
   626–635
   costs, 833
   density values, 804
   elastic modulus values, 636, 807
   electrical resistivity values, 827
   optical, 781–785
   polymer, 557
   properties of selected, 636
   specific heat values, 824
   spinning of, 610–611
   tensile strength values, 636, 813
   thermal conductivity values, 821
   Fick’s first law, 166, 713, 844
   for polymers, 179
   Fick’s second law, 167, 720, 844
   Fictive temperature, 590
   Filament winding, 650
   Fillers, 606, 844
   Films:
   diamond, 550–551
   polymer, 558–559
   shrink-wrap (polymer), 278
   Fine pearlite, 417–418, 430, 432, 844
   Fireclay refractories, 544
   Firing, 543, 598–599, 844
   Flame retardants, 607, 844Index • 867
   Flexural strength, 211–212, 844
   influence of porosity on, ceramics,
   213–214
   values for selected ceramics, 205,
   812
   Fluorescence, 775, 844
   Fluorite structure, 50
   Fluorocarbons, 103
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 553, 556
   Flux (clay products), 595, 598
   Foams, 559, 844
   Forces:
   bonding, 24–26
   coulombic, 27, 841
   Forging, 570, 571, 844
   Formaldehyde, 101
   Forming operations (metals),
   569–571
   Forsterite, 55
   Forward bias, 490, 492, 844
   Fractographic investigations:
   ceramics, 305–308
   metals, 291–293
   Fractographs:
   cup-and-cone fracture surfaces,
   291
   fatigue striations, 321
   glass rod, 307
   intergranular fracture, 296
   transgranular fracture, 295
   Fracture, see also Brittle fracture;
   Ductile fracture; Impact
   fracture testing
   delayed, 304
   fundamentals of, 289–290
   polymers, 308–309
   types, 203–204, 290–293
   Fracture mechanics, 293, 844
   applied to ceramics, 304
   polymers, 308–309
   use in design, 300–304
   Fracture profiles, 290
   Fracture strength, 201. See also
   Flexural strength
   ceramics, 211–212
   distribution of, 305
   influence of porosity, 213–214
   influence of specimen size, 305,
   635–636
   Fracture surface, ceramics, 307
   Fracture toughness, 206, 298–299,
   844
   ceramic-matrix composites,
   645–646
   ranges for material types (bar
   chart), 7
   values for selected materials, 300,
   814–815
   Free electrons, 466, 844
   contributions to heat capacity,
   708
   role in heat conduction, 713
   Free energy, 342, 343, 402–405, 844
   activation, 404, 409
   volume, 403
   Freeze-out region, 482–483
   Frenkel defects, 130, 844
   equilibrium number, 132
   Full annealing, 428, 576–577,
   844
   Fullerenes, 58–59
   Functionality (polymers), 105
   Furnace heating elements, 472
   Fused silica, 89
   characteristics, 541, 591
   dielectric properties, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   flexural strength, 205
   index of refraction, 767
   modulus of elasticity, 193
   thermal properties, 709
   G
   Gadolinium, 729, 733
   Gallium arsenide:
   cost, 831
   electrical characteristics, 474, 477
   for lasers, 782
   for light-emitting diodes, 776, 788
   Gallium phosphide:
   electrical characteristics, 474
   for light-emitting diodes, 788
   Galvanic corrosion, 680–682, 844
   Galvanic couples, 664
   Galvanic series, 669–670, 844
   Galvanized steel, 540, 688
   Garnets, 733
   Garnet single crystal, 81
   Gas constant, 129, 844
   Gating system, 572
   Gauge length, 188
   Gaussian error function, 168
   Gecko lizard, 15
   Geometrical isomerism, 113–115
   Germanium:
   crystal structure, 58
   electrical characteristics, 474, 481,
   513
   Gibbs phase rule, 378–380, 844
   Gilding metal, 531
   Glass:
   as amorphous material, 89
   annealing, 577, 593, 839
   blowing, 591–592
   classification, 540, 541
   color, 772–773
   commercial; compositions and
   characteristics, 541
   corrosion resistance, 694–695
   cost, 832
   dielectric properties, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   flexural strength, 193, 812
   forming techniques, 591–593
   fracture surface
   (photomicrograph), 307
   hardness, 229
   heat treatment, 593–594
   melting point, 590
   modulus of elasticity, 193, 806
   optical flint, 541
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   300, 814
   refractive index, 767
   sheet forming (float process),
   592–593
   soda-lime, composition, 541
   softening point, 590
   strain point, 590
   stress-strain behavior, 213
   structure, 89
   surface crack propagation, 304
   tempering, 593, 615
   thermal properties, 709
   viscous properties, 590–591
   working point, 590, 853
   Glass-ceramics, 541–542, 844
   composition (Pyroceram), 541
   continuous cooling
   transformation diagram,
   542
   fabricating and heat treating,
   594
   flexural strength, 205, 812
   modulus of elasticity, 193, 806
   optical transparency, conditions
   for, 774
   properties and applications, 542
   Glass fibers, 638
   fiberglass-reinforced composites,
   637–638, 640
   forming, 593
   properties as fiber, 636
   Glass transition, polymers, 448868 • Index
   Glass transition temperature,
   449–450, 590, 844
   factors that affect, polymers,
   450
   values for selected polymers,
   450, 838
   Gold, 538
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   electrical conductivity, 469
   slip systems, 249
   thermal properties, 709
   Gold-tin phase diagram, 397
   Graft copolymers, 116, 117, 844
   Grain boundaries, 82, 145, 844
   Grain boundary energy, 145
   Grain growth, 269–270, 844
   Grains, 844
   definition, 80
   distortion during plastic
   deformation, 254–255
   Grain size, 844
   dependence on time, 270
   determination of, 155
   mechanical properties and, 270
   reduction, and strengthening of
   metals, 257–258
   refinement by annealing, 576
   Grain size number (ASTM),
   155
   Graphite, 58
   in cast irons, 524
   compared to carbon, 636, 639
   cost, 832
   from decomposition of cementite,
   524
   electrical conductivity, 496
   properties/applications, 551
   properties as whisker, 636
   as a refractory, 545
   structure of, 59
   Gray cast iron, 524–525, 844
   compositions, mechanical
   properties, and applications,
   527
   Green ceramic bodies, 597,
   844
   Green design, 794
   Ground state, 21, 764, 844
   Growth, phase particle, 402,
   410–412, 844
   rate, 411
   temperature dependence of rate,
   411
   Gutta percha, 114
   H
   Hackle region, 307, 308
   Half-cells, standard, 665–666
   Half-reactions, 663
   Hall coefficient, 488
   Hall effect, 488–489, 844
   Hall-Petch equation, 258
   Hall voltage, 488
   Halogens, 23
   Hardenability, 578–581, 845
   Hardenability band, 581, 582
   Hardenability curves, 579–581
   Hard magnetic materials, 744–747,
   845
   properties, 746
   Hardness, 845
   bainite, pearlite vs.
   transformation temperature,
   433
   ceramics, 228, 229
   comparison of scales, 227
   conversion diagram, 227
   correlation with tensile strength,
   228
   fine and coarse pearlite,
   spheroidite, 432
   pearlite, martensite, tempered
   martensite, 433
   polymers, 228–229
   tempered martensite, 434, 436
   Hardness tests, 222–229
   summary of tests, 224
   Hard sphere model, 39
   Head-to-head configuration, 112
   Head-to-tail configuration, 112
   Heat affected zone, 573, 574
   Heat capacity, 706–708, 845
   temperature dependence,
   707–708
   vibrational contribution, 706–707
   Heat flux, 711
   Heat of fusion, latent, 405
   Heat transfer:
   mechanism, 706–707, 713
   nonsteady-state, 720
   Heat treatable, definition of, 531
   Heat treatments, 161. See also
   Annealing; Phase
   transformations
   dislocation reduction, 246
   glass, 593–594
   hydrogen embrittlement, 688
   intergranular corrosion and, 685
   polymer morphology, 274
   polymer properties, 277
   for precipitation hardening,
   441–443
   recovery, recrystallization, and
   grain growth during, 263–270
   steel, 577–588
   Hertz, 761
   Heterogeneous nucleation, 402,
   408–410
   Hexagonal close-packed structure,
   42–43, 485
   anion stacking (ceramics), 79
   Burgers vector for, 249
   close-packed planes (metals),
   77–78
   slip systems, 249
   twinning in, 256
   Hexagonal crystal system, 61, 62
   direction indices, 68–70
   planar indices, 74–75
   Hexagonal ferrites, 733
   Hexane, 99
   High carbon steels, 521
   High-cycle fatigue, 319
   High polymers, 108, 845
   High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA)
   steels, 518–519, 845
   High-temperature
   superconductors, 753
   Holes, 466, 475, 845
   role, diffusion in ionic materials,
   177
   mobility:
   influence of dopant
   concentration on, 483
   influence of temperature on,
   484–485
   values for selected
   semiconductors, 474
   temperature dependence of
   concentration (Si, Ge), 481
   Homogeneous nucleation, 402–408
   Homopolymers, 105, 845
   Honeycomb structure, 652
   Hooke’s law, 192, 218
   Hot pressing, 601
   Hot working, 265, 570, 845. See also
   Heat treatments
   HSLA (high-strength, low-alloy)
   steels, 518–519, 845
   Hybrid composites, 647, 845
   Hydration, of cement, 546–547
   Hydrocarbons, 98–100
   Hydrogen:
   diffusive purification, 166, 183
   reduction, 671Index • 869
   Hydrogen bonding, 28, 31, 32, 845
   water expansion upon freezing, 33
   Hydrogen chloride, 32, 36
   Hydrogen electrode, 665–666
   Hydrogen embrittlement, 687–688,
   845
   Hydrogen fluoride, 32, 36
   Hydrogen induced cracking, 687
   Hydrogen stress cracking, 687
   Hydroplastic forming, 596, 845
   Hydroplasticity, 594
   Hydrostatic powder pressing, 600
   Hypereutectoid alloys, 388–390,
   845
   Hypoeutectoid alloys, 386–388,
   845
   Hysteresis, 738
   Hysteresis, ferromagnetic, 845
   soft and hard magnetic materials,
   741–742, 744–745
   I
   Ice, 33, 344, 398
   Impact energy, 310, 845
   fine pearlite, 431
   temperature dependence:
   high-strength materials, 313
   low-strength FCC and HCP
   metals, 313
   low-strength steels, 312, 313
   Impact fracture testing, 310–314
   Impact strength, polymers, 314
   Imperfections. See Defects;
   Dislocations
   Impurities:
   in ceramics, 135
   diffusion, 163
   electrical resistivity, 470–471
   in metals, 133–135
   thermal conductivity, 714
   Incongruent phase transformation,
   372
   Index of refraction, 765–766,
   845
   selected materials, 767
   Indices, Miller, 71–73, 847
   Indium antimonide, electrical
   characteristics, 474
   Induced dipoles, 31–32
   Inert gases, 21, 23
   Inhibitors, 689, 845
   Initial permeability, 737
   Injection molding, 608–609
   Insulators (electrical), 845. See also
   Dielectric materials
   ceramics and polymers as, 496,
   507
   color, 772
   defined, 463
   electron band structure, 465,
   466–467
   translucency and opacity, 774–775
   Integrated circuits, 494–495, 845
   scanning electron micrograph,
   460, 495
   Interatomic bonding, 27–31
   Interatomic separation, 25
   Interconnects, integrated circuits,
   178
   Interdiffusion, 163, 845
   Interfacial defects, 144–147
   Interfacial energies, 147
   for heterogeneous nucleation,
   409
   Intergranular corrosion, 684, 845
   Intergranular fracture, 293, 296,
   845
   Intermediate solid solutions, 369,
   373, 845
   Intermetallic compounds, 369, 444,
   845
   Interplanar spacing, cubic crystals,
   85
   Interstitial diffusion, 164, 845
   Interstitial impurity defects, 134
   Interstitials:
   in ceramics, 135
   in polymers, 136
   self-, 129, 850
   Interstitial solid solutions, 134, 845
   Intrinsic carrier concentration, 475
   temperature dependence for Si
   and Ge, 481
   Intrinsic conductivity, 475
   Intrinsic semiconductors, 474–477,
   845
   Invar, Material of Importance, 712
   thermal properties, 709
   Invariant point, 345, 357, 845
   Inverse lever rule, 348. See also
   Lever rule
   Inverse spinel structure, 732
   Ion cores, 30
   Ionic bonding, 27–28, 845
   in ceramics, 45
   Ionic character (percent), 29, 45
   Ionic conduction, 179, 463, 497
   Ionic polarization, 504, 505, 849
   Ionic radii, 46, 48
   Iridium, 538
   Iron, see also Ferrous alloys; Steels
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   bonding energy and melting
   temperature, 28
   Curie temperature, 735
   electrical conductivity, 469
   ferrite (α), 380, 382, 387, 843
   as ferromagnetic material, 729
   magnetic properties, 744
   magnetization curves (single
   crystal), 740
   polymorphism, 61
   recrystallization temperature,
   268
   rolling texture, 743
   slip systems, 249
   stress-strain behavior (at three
   temperatures), 206
   thermal properties, 709
   yield and tensile strengths,
   ductility, 205
   Iron age, 2
   Iron-carbon alloys, see Ferrous
   alloys
   Iron-iron carbide alloys, 380–383
   Iron-silicon alloys, magnetic
   properties, 744
   Material of Importance (use in
   transformer cores), 743
   Isobutane, 100
   Isobutylene, 118
   Isomerism, 99, 845
   geometrical, 113–114, 115
   stereoisomerism, 112–113, 115
   Isomorphous systems, 345, 846
   binary, see Binary isomorphous
   alloys
   Isoprene, 114
   Isostatic powder pressing, 600
   Isostrain, in fiber-reinforced
   composites, 628
   Isostress, in fiber-reinforced
   composites, 631
   Isotactic configuration, 112, 115,
   846
   Isothermal, 846
   Isothermal transformation
   diagrams, 414–426, 846
   4340 alloy steel, 424
   0.76 wt% C steel, 423
   1.13 wt% C steel, 456
   Isotopes, 16, 846
   Isotropic materials, 82, 635, 846
   Izod impact test, 310–311, 846870 • Index
   J
   Jominy end-quench test, 578–579,
   846
   Junction transistors, 492–493, 846
   K
   Kaolinite clay, 56, 595
   Kevlar, see Aramid
   Kinetics, 412–413, 846
   crystallization of polymers, 447
   oxidation, 693–694
   phase transformations, 412–413
   Knoop hardness, 224, 226
   Kovar:
   as low-expansion alloy, 712
   thermal properties, 709
   L
   Ladder polymer, 698
   Lamellae, 121
   Laminar composites, 651, 846
   Large-particle composites,
   620–624, 846
   Larson-Miller parameter, 330
   Lasers, 778–781, 846
   semiconductor, 779–780, 783
   types, characteristics, and
   applications, 782
   Laser beam welding, 574
   Latent heat of fusion, 405
   Latex, 557
   Lattice parameters, 61, 62, 846
   Lattices, 39, 846
   Lattice strains, 246–247, 259–260,
   446, 846
   Lattice waves, 706–707
   Laue photograph, 37, 86
   Layered silicates, 55–57
   Lay-up, in prepreg processing, 649
   Lead, 538
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   diffraction pattern, 87
   recrystallization temperature, 268
   superconducting critical
   temperature, 752
   Lead-free solders, 362
   Lead-tin phase diagram, 358,
   361–369
   Lead titanate, 550
   Lead zirconate, 509
   Lead-zirconate-titanate, 508
   Leak-before-break design, 302
   Leathery region, polymers, 220
   LEDs, see Light-emitting diodes
   Lever rule, 348–350, 846
   Life cycle analysis/assessment, 794
   Light:
   absorption, 768–771
   reflection, 767
   refraction, 765–766
   scattering, 774
   transmission, 771–772
   Light-emitting diodes, 846
   organic, 777
   polymer, 777
   semiconductor, 776
   Lime, 547
   Linear atomic density, 75–76
   Linear coefficient of thermal
   expansion, 325, 708–711, 716,
   718, 846
   values for selected materials, 709,
   815–818
   Linear defects, 140–144
   Linear polymers, 110, 111, 846
   Liquid crystal polymers, 560–561,
   846
   Liquidus line, 345, 346, 357, 846
   Liquidus temperatures, Cu-Au
   system, 395
   Lodestone (magnetite), 723, 731
   Longitudinal direction, 627, 846
   Longitudinal loading, composites,
   627–629, 632
   Lost-foam casting, 570, 572
   Lost-wax casting, 572
   Low-angle grain boundaries, see
   Small-angle grain boundaries
   Low-carbon steels, 518–519
   Low-cycle fatigue, 319
   Lower critical temperature
   (ferrous alloys), 576, 846
   Lower yield point, 199, 200
   Low-expansion alloys, 712
   Luminescence, 775, 846
   M
   Macromolecules, 100, 846
   Magnesia, see Magnesium oxide
   Magnesium:
   diffraction pattern, 37
   elastic and shear moduli, 193
   Poisson’s ratio, 193
   slip systems, 249
   Magnesium alloys, 535, 536
   Magnesium fluoride, optical
   properties, 767
   Magnesium-lead phase diagram,
   371
   Magnesium oxide:
   bonding energy and melting
   temperature, 28
   flexural strength, 205
   index of refraction, 767
   modulus of elasticity, 193
   thermal properties, 709
   Magnesium oxide-aluminum oxide
   phase diagram, 375
   Magnetic anisotropy, 740–741
   Magnetic ceramics, 731–735
   Magnetic dipoles, 723–724
   Magnetic domains, see Domains
   Magnetic energy product, 744–745
   Magnetic field strength, 724,
   725–726, 846
   Magnetic field vectors, 724–726
   Magnetic flux density, 724, 726, 846
   critical values for
   superconductors, 752
   Magnetic hysteresis, 736–740
   factors that affect, 740
   soft and hard magnetic materials,
   741–747
   Magnetic induction, see Magnetic
   flux density
   Magnetic materials:
   hard, 744–747
   low thermal expansion
   characteristics, 712
   neodymium-iron-boron alloys,
   746–747
   samarium-cobalt alloys, 746
   soft, 741–744
   Magnetic moments, 726–727
   cations, 732
   Magnetic permeability, 725, 726,
   761, 766
   Magnetic storage, 747–750
   Magnetic susceptibility, 726, 846
   selected diamagnetic and
   paramagnetic materials, 729
   various units for, 726
   Magnetic texture, 82
   Magnetic units, conversion factors,
   726
   Magnetism:
   basic concepts, 723–727
   electron spin and, 727
   Magnetite (lodestone), 723, 731
   Magnetization, 725–726, 846
   easy and hard directions, 740–741
   saturation, 730, 734, 846
   Magnetocrystalline anisotropy,
   740–741Index • 871
   Magnetostrictive materials, 12
   Magnetorheological fluids, 12
   Majority charge carriers, 479
   Malleability, see Ductility
   Malleable cast iron, 526, 527, 529,
   846
   compositions, mechanical
   properties, and applications,
   527
   Manganese oxide, as
   antiferromagnetic material,
   731
   Manufacturing techniques,
   economics, 791
   Martensite, 421–423, 427–428, 438,
   846
   alloying to favor formation of,
   427–428
   crystal structure, 422
   hardness, 433–434
   hardness vs. carbon content, 433
   shape-memory phase
   transformations, 439–440
   tempering of, 434–437
   Martensitic stainless steels, 522,
   523
   Materials:
   advanced, 10–13
   by design, 12
   classification of, 5–10
   costs, 642, 829–833
   current and future needs, 13
   disposal of, 793–794
   economic considerations, 790–791
   engineered, 792
   of the future, 11–13
   historical development of, 2
   nanoengineered, 12–13
   nonrenewable sources of, 13, 793
   smart, 11–12
   total cycle, 792–793
   Materials engineering, 3–5,
   187–188
   Materials of Importance:
   aluminum electrical wires,
   472–473
   aluminum for integrated circuit
   interconnects, 178–179
   carbon nanotubes, 60
   carbonated beverage containers,
   11
   catalysts (and surface defects),
   148
   Invar and other low-expansion
   alloys, 712
   an iron-silicon alloy that is used
   in transformer cores, 743
   lead-free solders, 362
   light-emitting diodes, 776–777
   metal alloys used for euro coins,
   539
   nanocomposites in tennis balls,
   653–654
   phenolic billiard balls, 555
   shape-memory alloys, 439–441
   shrink-wrap polymer films, 278
   tin (its allotropic transformation),
   63
   water (its volume expansion upon
   freezing), 33
   Materials science, 3–5
   Matrix phase, 847
   definition, 619
   fiber-reinforced composites, 637
   Matthiessen’s rule, 469, 847
   Mean stress (fatigue), 315–316, 323
   Mechanical properties, see also
   specific mechanical properties
   grain size and, 270
   variability, 229–231
   Mechanical twins, 146–147,
   255–256. See also Twinning
   Mechanics of materials, 192
   Medium carbon steels, 520–521
   Meissner effect, 751, 752
   Melamine-formaldehyde, repeat
   unit structure, 834
   Melting (polymers), 448
   Melting point (temperature), glass,
   590, 847
   and bonding energy for selected
   materials, 28
   ceramics, 590
   factors that affect (polymers),
   450–451
   glasses, 847
   polymers, 450–451, 838
   Melt spinning, 610–611
   Mercury:
   bonding energy and melting
   temperature, 28
   superconducting critical
   temperature, 752
   Mer unit, 100
   Metal alloys, see Alloys
   Metallic bonding, 30, 847
   Metallic glasses, 468
   Metallographic examination, 150
   Metal-matrix composites, 644–645,
   847
   Metals, see also Alloys; Crystalline
   materials
   corrosion, see Corrosion
   costs, 829–831
   crystal structures, see Crystal
   structures
   defined, 5–6, 847
   density values, 801–803
   elastic modulus values, 193,
   804–806
   as electrical conductors, 463
   electrical resistivity values,
   824–826
   electron band structure, 465
   fabrication, 569–577
   fracture toughness for selected,
   300, 814
   linear coefficient of thermal
   expansion values, 709,
   815–816
   optical properties, 764–765
   oxidation, 691–694
   Poisson’s ratio for selected, 193,
   808
   shear moduli, 193
   specific heat values, 709, 822–823
   strengthening, see Strengthening
   of metals
   thermal conductivity values, 709,
   819–820
   Metastability, 847
   of microstructures, 413–414
   Metastable states, 343
   Methane, 28–29, 99
   Methyl alcohol, 101
   Methyl group, 103
   Mica, 57
   dielectric constant and dielectric
   strength, 500
   Microconstituents, see also specific
   microconstituent phases:
   definition, 366, 847
   in eutectic alloys, 366–369
   in steel alloys, 384–391
   Microcracks, 293–297
   in ceramics, 304–305
   Microelectromechanical systems
   (MEMS), 12, 547–548, 847
   Microelectronics, 494–496
   Microindentation hardness tests,
   226
   Micron, 149
   Microscopic techniques, useful
   resolution ranges, 154
   Microscopy, 149–154, 847872 • Index
   Microstructure, 149, 847
   austenite, 382
   bainite, 419
   bonded ceramic abrasive, 546
   brass during recrystallization and
   grain growth, 265–266
   carbon-black-reinforced rubber,
   622
   carbon nanotube, 60
   cast irons, 525–526, 528
   cemented carbide, 622
   coarse and fine pearlite, 418
   compacted graphite iron, 526
   craze in poly(phenylene oxide),
   310
   development in eutectic alloys,
   361–369
   development in iron-carbon
   alloys, 384–391
   development in isomorphous
   alloys:
   equilibrium cooling, 351–353
   nonequilibrium cooling,
   353–355
   eutectic (lead-tin), 365
   ferrite (α), 382
   glass fracture surface, 307
   gray cast iron, 525
   hypereutectoid steel alloy, 389
   hypoeutectoid steel alloy, 339, 387
   influence of cooling rate, 580
   integrated circuit, 460, 495
   magnetic storage disk, 748, 749
   martensite, 422
   metastable, 343
   microscopic examination,
   149–154
   pearlite, 385, 418
   pearlite partially transformed to
   spheroidite, 421
   polycrystalline metal before and
   after deformation, 255
   porcelain, 599
   precipitation-hardened aluminum
   alloy, 400
   single-phase iron-chromium alloy,
   152
   sintered ceramic, 602
   size ranges, various structural
   features, 154
   spheroidite, 420
   spherulite (natural rubber), 97
   stress corrosion in brass, 687
   TEM (high resolution)–single
   crystals of (Ce0.5Zr0.5)O2, 148
   tempered martensite, 435
   Microvoids, 290–291, 309
   Miller-Bravais index system, 68–69
   Miller indices, 70–73, 847
   Minority charge carriers, 479
   Mirror region, 307–308
   Mist region, 307–308
   Mixed dislocations, 141, 143, 244,
2. See also Dislocations
   Mobility, of charge carriers,
   467–468, 847
   influence of dopant content,
   483–484
   influence of temperature, 484–485
   ionic, 497
   values for selected
   semiconductors, 474
   Modulus of elasticity, 192–194, 847
   anisotropy, 82
   atomic bonding and, 194–195, 237
   carbon nanotubes, 60
   copper reinforced with tungsten,
   621
   influence of porosity on, in
   ceramics, 213–214
   ranges for material types (bar
   chart), 6
   relation to shear modulus, 197
   selected ceramics, 193, 806
   selected fiber-reinforcement
   materials, 636, 807
   selected metals, 193, 804–806
   selected polymers, 193, 806–807
   temperature dependence:
   elastomers, 279
   metals, 195
   and thermal fatigue, 325
   and thermal stresses, 716–718
   values for various materials,
   804–807
   Modulus of resilience, 204–206
   Modulus of rupture, 212. See also
   Flexural strength
   Mohs hardness scale, 222, 226, 227
   Molarity, 664, 847
   Molding, plastics, 608–610, 847
   Mole, 17, 847
   Molecular chemistry, polymers,
   101–105, 847
   Molecular configurations,
   polymers, 111–115
   Molecular mass, 106
   Molecular materials, 34
   Molecular shape, polymers,
   108–109
   Molecular structure, polymers,
   109–111, 847
   Molecular weight, 847
   influence on polymer
   melting/glass transition
   temperatures, 450–451
   influence on mechanical
   behavior, polymers, 274, 276
   number-average, 106–108
   weight-average, 106–108
   Molecular weight distribution,
   106–107
   Molecules, polar, 32, 848
   Molybdenum, 536, 538
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   density, 802
   modulus of elasticity, 805
   Poisson’s ratio, 808
   properties as wire, 636
   slip systems, 249
   thermal properties, 816, 820, 823
   yield and tensile strengths,
   ductility, 205
   Moment of inertia, 211–212, 239,
   642
   Monel, 538
   Monoclinic crystal system, 61, 62
   Monomers, 100, 847
   MOSFET transistors, 491, 493–494,
   847
   Mullite, 377, 544, 545
   flexural strength, 205
   modulus of elasticity, 193
   Poisson’s ratio, 193
   Muntz metal, 531
   Muscovite (mica), 57
   N
   Nanotechnology, 12–13
   Nanotubes, carbon, 13, 60
   Natural aging, 446, 847
   Natural rubber (polyisoprene),
   114, 552, 556
   degradation resistance, 696
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 838
   stress-strain behavior, 280
   thermal properties, 709
   NBR, see Nitrile rubber (NBR)
   Necking, 201
   complex stress state in, 208
   in ductile fracture, 290–291
   polymers, 217
   N´ eel temperature, 735Index • 873
   Neodymium-iron-boron magnets,
   746–747
   Neoprene rubber, 556, 696
   Nernst equation, 667
   Network formers (glass), 89
   Network modifiers (glass), 89
   Network polymers, 111, 847
   Network solids, 59
   Neutrons, 16
   Nichrome, 472
   Nickel, 538
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   Curie temperature, 735
   elastic and shear moduli, 193
   as ferromagnetic material,
   729–730
   magnetization curves (single
   crystal), 740
   Poisson’s ratio, 193
   recrystallization temperature, 268
   slip systems, 249
   thermal properties, 709
   thoria-dispersed (TD), 624
   yield and tensile strengths,
   ductility, 205
   Nickel ferrite, 733
   Niobium, 536
   Niobium alloys, as
   superconductors, 752
   Nitinol, 439–441
   Nitrile rubber (NBR), 117
   characteristics and applications,
   556
   degradation resistance, 696
   Noble metals, 538
   Nodular iron, see Ductile iron
   Noncrystalline materials, 38, 87–89,
   847
   Nondestructive evaluation, see
   Nondestructive testing
   Nondestructive inspecting, see
   Nondestructive testing
   Nondestructive testing, 301
   Nonequilibrium cooling, 391
   Nonequilibrium phases, 412
   Nonequilibrium solidification,
   353–355
   Nonferrous alloys, 530–540, 847.
   See also specific nonferrous
   alloys
   Nonsteady-state diffusion,
   167–171, 847
   Nonstoichiometry, 131
   Normalizing, 428, 576, 847
   Notches, effect of, 297
   Notch toughness, 206, 310
   n-p-n Junction transistors, 493
   n-Type semiconductors, 477–479,
   847
   Nucleation, 402–410, 847
   heterogeneous, 408–410
   homogeneous, 402–408
   Nucleation rate, 406
   temperature dependence,
   404–406
   homogeneous vs.
   heterogeneous, 410
   Nucleus, phase particle, 403
   Number-average molecular weight,
   106–108
   Nylon, fatigue behavior, 320
   Nylon 6,6: 105
   degradation resistance, 696
   density, 126, 803
   dielectric constant and dielectric
   strength, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   mechanical properties, 193, 205
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 450, 838
   repeat unit structure, 105, 836
   thermal properties, 709
   Nylons, trade names,
   characteristics, and
   applications, 553
   O
   Octahedral position, 79, 732, 847
   Ohm’s law, 461–462, 847
   Oil, as quenching medium, 581–582
   Opacity, 763, 847
   in insulators, 774
   in semiconductors, 768–769
   Optical fibers, 548–549, 781–785,
   847
   Optical flint glass, composition and
   properties, 541, 767
   Optical microscopy, 150–152
   Optical properties, 760
   of metals, 764–765
   of nonmetals, 765–775
   Ordered solid solution, 369, 531
   Organic light-emitting diodes, 777
   Orientation polarization, 504, 849
   Orthorhombic crystal system, 61,
   62
   Osmium, 538
   Overaging, 443, 848
   Overvoltage, 671–675
   Oxidation, 662–663, 848
   kinetics, 693–694
   metals, 691–694
   Ozone, degradation of polymers,
   696, 697–698
   P
   Palladium, 166, 538
   Paraffins, 99
   Paramagnetism, 728, 848
   Parisons, 591, 610
   Particle-reinforced composites,
   620–625, 848
   Particulate magnetic recording
   media, 747–749
   Pascal-second, 271
   Passivity, 678–679, 848
   Pauli exclusion principle, 21, 848
   Pearlite, 384–385, 848
   coarse, 417–418, 841
   colonies, 385
   as composite, 618
   fine, 417, 431, 844
   formation of, 385, 414–417, 428,
   438
   hardness vs. transformation
   temperature, 433
   mechanical properties, 430–434
   Pentane, 99
   Performance (materials), 3
   Periclase, 544, 545, see also
   Magnesium oxide
   Periodic table, 23–24, 848
   Peritectic reaction, 371–372, 848
   Permalloy (45), magnetic
   properties, 744
   Permanent dipoles, 18, 20,
   504–505
   Permeability (in polymers),
   179–181
   Permeability coefficient, 179
   Permeability, magnetic, 725–726,
   761, 766, 848
   Permittivity, 27, 499–500, 761, 766,
   848
   Perovskite structure, 51, 507, 753
   PET, see Polyester(s)
   Phase boundaries, 146
   Phase diagrams, 343–351, 848
   binary eutectic systems, 356–369
   binary isomorphous systems,
   345–355
   ceramic systems, 373–377
   congruent phase transformations,
   372–373874 • Index
   Phase diagrams (continued)
   definitions/basic concepts,
   340–343
   eutectoid and peritectic reactions,
   371–372
   intermediate phases in, 369,
   371
   interpretation of, 347–351
   pressure-temperature (unary),
   343–345
   specific:
   aluminum-copper, 444
   aluminum oxide-chromium
   oxide, 375
   cast iron, 524
   copper-beryllium, 458
   copper-nickel, 346
   copper-silver, 356, 379
   copper-zinc, 370, 372
   halfnium-vanadium, 373
   iron-carbon (graphite), 524
   iron-iron carbide, 381
   lead-tin, 358, 361–369
   magnesium-lead, 371
   magnesium oxide-aluminum
   oxide, 375
   nickel-titanium, 374
   silica-alumina, 377
   sugar-water, 341
   tin-bismuth, 362
   tin-gold, 397
   water (pressure-temperature),
   344, 398
   water-sodium chloride, 359
   zirconia-calcia, 376
   ternary, 378
   Phase equilibria, 342–343, 848
   Phases, 341–342, 848
   Phase transformation diagrams:
   continuous cooling, 841
   metals, 426–429, 457
   glass-ceramics, 542
   isothermal, 414–426, 846
   Phase transformation rate, 412
   martensitic transformation,
   422–423
   temperature dependence,
   411–412
   Phase transformations, 848
   athermal, 423
   classification, 402
   shape-memory effect, 439–440
   Phenol, 101
   Phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite):
   in billiard balls, 516, 555
   dielectric constant and dielectric
   strength, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   mechanical properties, 193, 205
   repeat unit structure, 105, 834
   thermal properties, 709
   Phenolics, trade names,
   characteristics, and
   applications, 554
   Phenyl group, 100, 101
   Phonons, 707, 713, 714, 848
   Phosphorescence, 775, 848
   Photoconductivity, 775, 848
   Photomicrographs, 150, 848
   Photonic signal, 781
   Photons, 707, 762, 848
   Pickling, of steels, 688
   Piezoelectricity, 550, 848
   Piezoelectric ceramics, 508–509
   as Materials of Importance, 550
   properties and applications, 550
   in smart materials/systems, 12
   Pilling-Bedworth ratio, 692, 848
   selected metals, 693
   Pitting corrosion, 683–684, 848
   Plain carbon steels, 423, 518, 848
   Planar atomic density, 75–76
   Planck’s constant, 762, 848
   Planes, see Crystallographic planes
   Plane strain, 298, 848
   Plane strain fracture toughness,
   299, 300, 848
   ceramic-matrix composites,
   645–646
   selected materials, 300, 814–815
   Plaster of paris, 546, 572, 596
   Plastic deformation, 199–210, 848
   ceramics, 271–272
   dislocation motion and, 243–256
   in fracture, 290, 293
   influence on electrical
   conductivity, 469, 471
   polycrystalline materials, 253–255
   semicrystalline polymers, 274–277
   twinning, 255–256
   Plasticizers, 606, 848
   Plastics, 848
   characteristics and applications,
   552, 553–554
   in composites, 621
   forming techniques, 607–610
   Platinum, 538
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   electrical conductivity, 469
   Plywood, 651
   p-n-p Junction transistors,
   492–493
   p-n Junctions:
   for light-emitting diodes, 776–777
   for rectification, 490–491
   Point coordinates, 64–66
   Point defects, 128–140, 848
   Poise, 271
   Poisson’s ratio, 196–199, 848
   values for various materials, 193,
   808–809
   Polarization, 500–502, 848. See also
   Electronic polarization; Ionic
   polarization; Orientation
   polarization
   Polarization (corrosion), 671–675,
   848
   corrosion rates from, 675–678
   Polar molecules, 32, 34, 848
   Polyacetylene, repeat unit
   structure, 498
   Polyacrylonitrile (PAN):
   carbon fibers, 639
   repeat unit structure, 118, 834
   Poly(alkylene glycol), as a
   quenching agent, 583
   Poly(amide-imide) (PAI), repeat
   unit structure, 835
   Polybutadiene, see Butadiene
   Poly(butylene terephthalate)
   (PBT), repeat unit structure,
   835
   Polycarbonate:
   density, 803
   degradation resistance, 696
   mechanical properties, 193, 205,
   806, 808, 812
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 450, 838
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   300
   reinforced vs. unreinforced
   properties, 634
   repeat unit structure, 105, 835
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 553
   Polychloroprene, see Chloroprene;
   Chloroprene rubber
   Polychlorotrifluoroethylene, repeat
   unit structure, 835
   Polycrystalline materials, 80–82,
   849
   plastic deformation, 253–255
   Polydimethylsiloxane, 39–41Index • 875
   degradation resistance, 696
   repeat unit structure, 554, 835
   Polyester(s):
   degradation resistance (PET), 696
   density (PET), 803
   fatigue behavior (PET), 320
   mechanical properties (PET),
   193, 205, 806, 812
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures (PET), 450,
   838
   in polymer-matrix composites,
   641
   recycle code and products (PET),
   796
   repeat unit structure (PET), 105,
   836
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 554
   Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), 641
   degradation resistance, 696
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 838
   repeat unit structure, 835
   Polyetherimide (PEI), 641
   Polyethylene, 102, 104
   crystal structure of, 118
   degradation resistance, 696
   density, 803
   dielectric constant and dielectric
   strength, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   fatigue behavior, 320
   index of refraction, 767
   mechanical properties, 193, 205,
   807, 808, 812
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 450, 838
   recycle codes and products, 796
   single crystals, 121
   thermal properties, 709, 817, 821,
   824
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 553
   ultrahigh molecular weight, see
   Ultrahigh molecular weight
   polyethylene
   Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
   (PET), see Polyester(s)
   Poly(hexamethylene adipamide),
   see Nylon 6,6
   Polyimides:
   glass transition temperature, 838
   polymer-matrix composites, 641
   repeat unit structure, 836
   Polyisobutylene:
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 838
   repeat unit structure, 118, 836
   Polyisoprene, see Natural rubber
   (polyisoprene)
   Polymer-matrix composites,
   637–644, 849
   Polymerization, 101–102, 603–605
   degree of, 107
   Polymer light-emitting diodes, 777
   Polymers, 8–9, 100, 849. See also
   Plastics
   additives, 606–607
   classification (molecular
   characteristics), 115
   coefficient of thermal expansion
   values, 709, 817
   conducting, 497–498
   costs, 832–833
   crosslinking, see Crosslinking
   crystallinity, 117–123, 841
   crystallization, 447–448
   crystals, 121–123
   defined, 8–9, 100
   defects in, 136
   deformation (semicrystalline):
   elastic, 272
   plastic, 272–274
   degradation of, 695–699
   density, 120
   density values, 803–804
   diffusion in, 179–181
   ductility values, 205, 812–813
   elastic modulus values, 193,
   806–807
   elastomers, 278–280, 552–556
   electrical properties, 496,
   497–498, 500, 826
   fibers, 557
   fracture mechanics, 309
   fracture toughness values, 300,
   815
   glass transition, 448–449
   glass transition temperatures,
   449–450, 838
   as insulators, 496, 507
   ladder, 698
   as light-emitting diodes, 777
   liquid crystal, 560–561
   mechanical properties, 215–217,
   228–229
   factors that affect, 274–277
   values of, 193, 205, 806–807, 808,
   812–813
   melting of, 448
   melting temperatures, 450, 838
   miscellaneous applications,
   557–559
   molecular chemistry, 101–105
   molecular configuration,
   111–114
   molecular shape, 108–109
   molecular structure, 109–111
   molecular weight, 106–108
   natural, 98
   opacity and translucency, 775
   Poisson’s ratio values, 193, 808
   radiation effects, 697
   refraction indices, 767
   semicrystalline, 119, 121–123,
   272–276
   specific heat values, 709, 823–824
   spherulites in, 97, 121–123, 274,
   277
   stereoisomerism, 112–113
   stress-strain behavior, 215–217
   swelling and dissolution, 695
   tensile strength values, 205,
   812–813
   thermal conductivity values, 709,
   820–821
   thermal properties, 709, 711,
   715–716
   thermoplastic, see Thermoplastic
   polymers
   thermosetting, see Thermosetting
   polymers
   types of, 98
   viscoelasticity, 218–222
   weathering, 699
   yield strength values, 205,
   812–813
   Poly(methyl methacrylate):
   density, 804
   electrical conductivity, 496
   fatigue behavior, 320
   index of refraction, 767
   mechanical properties, 193, 205,
   807, 808, 813
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 838
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   300, 815
   relaxation modulus, 240
   repeat unit structure, 105, 836
   stress-strain behavior as function
   of temperature, 216
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 553876 • Index
   Polymorphic transformations, in
   iron, 380–381
   Polymorphism, 61, 849
   Poly(paraphenylene
   terephthalamide), see Aramid
   Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO),
   repeat unit structure, 836
   Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS),
   641
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 838
   repeat unit structure, 836
   Polypropylene, 103
   degradation resistance, 696
   density, 126, 804
   fatigue behavior, 320
   index of refraction, 767
   kinetics of crystallization, 447
   mechanical properties, 193, 205,
   807, 808, 813
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 450, 838
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   815
   recycle code and products, 796
   repeat unit structure, 104, 837
   thermal properties, 709, 817, 821,
   824
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 553
   Polystyrene:
   degradation resistance, 696
   density, 804
   dielectric properties, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   fatigue behavior, 320
   index of refraction, 767
   mechanical properties, 193, 205,
   807, 808, 813
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 450, 838
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   300, 815
   repeat unit structure, 104, 837
   thermal properties, 709, 817, 821,
   824
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 553
   viscoelastic behavior, 219–221
   Polytetrafluoroethylene, 103
   degradation resistance, 696
   density, 804
   dielectric constant and dielectric
   strength, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   fatigue behavior, 320
   index of refraction, 767
   mechanical properties, 193, 205,
   807, 808, 813
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 450, 838
   repeat unit structure, 104, 837
   thermal properties, 709, 817, 821,
   824
   Poly(vinyl acetate), repeat unit
   structure, 837
   Poly(vinyl alcohol), repeat unit
   structure, 837
   Poly(vinyl chloride):
   density, 804
   mechanical properties, 193, 205,
   807, 808, 813
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 450, 838
   recycle code and products, 796
   repeat unit structure, 104, 837
   Poly(vinyl fluoride):
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 838
   repeat unit structure, 837
   Poly(vinylidene chloride):
   melting and glass transition
   temperatures, 838
   repeat unit structure, 837
   Poly(vinylidene fluoride):
   glass transition temperature,
   838
   repeat unit structure, 837
   Porcelain, 595
   dielectric constant and dielectric
   strength, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   microstructure, 599
   Porosity:
   ceramics, 213–214
   formation during sintering,
   600–601, 602
   influence on flexural strength,
   ceramics, 213–214
   influence on modulus of elasticity,
   ceramics, 213
   influence on thermal conductivity,
   715
   optical translucency and opacity,
   774
   refractory ceramics, 543–545
   Portland cement, 546–547
   Portland cement concrete, 623
   Posttensioned concrete, 624
   Potassium niobate, 550
   Powder metallurgy, 583, 849
   Powder pressing, ceramics, 600–601
   Powder x-ray diffraction
   techniques, 85–87
   Precipitation-hardenable stainless
   steels, 523
   Precipitation hardening, 438,
   441–446, 849
   heat treatments, 441–443
   mechanism, 443–446
   Prepreg production processes,
   648–650, 849
   Pressing:
   ceramics, powdered, 600–601
   glass, 591
   Prestressed concrete, 624, 849
   Primary bonds, 21, 22–30, 849
   Primary creep, 326
   Primary phase, 366, 849
   Principal quantum number, 18, 19
   Principle of combined action, 618,
   849
   Process annealing, 575, 849
   Processing, materials, 3
   Proeutectoid cementite, 388, 849
   Proeutectoid ferrite, 387, 849
   Propane, 99
   Properties, 849
   categories of, 3
   Proportional limit, 200, 849
   Protons, 16
   PTFE, see Polytetrafluoroethylene
   p-Type semiconductors, 479–480,
   849
   Pultrusion, 648
   Pyrex glass:
   composition, 541
   density, 803
   electrical resistivity, 826
   index of refraction, 767
   joined to low-expansion alloys,
   712
   mechanical properties, 806, 808,
   812
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   814
   thermal properties, 709, 817, 820,
   823
   thermal shock, 711
   Pyroceram:
   composition, 541
   density, 803
   electrical resistivity, 826
   mechanical properties, 806, 808,
   812Index • 877
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   814
   thermal properties, 817, 820, 823
   Q
   Quantum mechanics, 17, 849
   Quantum numbers, 18–21, 849
   magnetic, 19, 727
   Quartz, 54–55, 595, 599
   hardness, 229
   index of refraction, 767
   as piezoelectric material, 509
   Quenching media, 581–583
   R
   Radiation effects, polymers, 697
   Random copolymers, 116, 849
   Range of stress, 315, 316
   Recombination, electron-hole, 490,
   769, 776
   in light-emitting diodes, 776
   Recovery, 264, 849
   Recrystallization, 264–267, 575, 849
   effect on properties, 267
   kinetics for copper, 413
   Recrystallization temperature,
   264–265, 267–268, 849
   dependence on alloy content, 265
   dependence on percent cold
   work, 264–265
   selected metals and alloys, 268
   Rectification, 490–491
   Rectifying junctions, 490, 849
   Recycling:
   issues in materials science and
   engineering, 794–797
   of beverage cans, 789
   of composite materials, 797
   of glass, 795
   of metals, 795
   of plastics and rubber, 795–797
   Recycling codes and products, 796
   Reduction (electrochemical), 662,
   849
   Reduction in area, percent, 204
   Reflection, 767, 849
   Reflectivity, 763, 771
   Refraction, 759, 765–766, 849
   index of, 765, 845
   Refractories (ceramics), 540,
   543–545, 849
   corrosion, 694
   Refractory metals, 536, 538
   Reinforced concrete, 623–624,
   849
   Reinforcement efficiency, table of,
   635
   Relative permeability, 725, 726, 849
   Relative permittivity, see Dielectric
   constant
   Relaxation frequency, 506, 849
   Relaxation modulus, 218–221, 850
   Remanence (remanent induction),
   738, 850
   Repeated stress cycle, 315–316
   Repeat units,
   bifunctional and trifunctional, 105
   table of, 104–105
   Residual stresses, 575, 850. See also
   Thermal stresses
   glass, 593
   martensitic steels, 434
   Resilience, 204, 850
   Resin, polymer, 637
   Resistance (electrical), 461
   Resistivity, 850. See also Electrical
   resistivity
   Resolved shear stresses, 250, 850
   Retained austenite, 422, 423
   Reverse bias, 490, 850
   Reversed stress cycle, 315–316
   Rhodium, 538
   Rhombohedral crystal system, 61,
   62
   Rochelle salt, 507
   Rock salt structure, 49, 51
   Rockwell hardness tests, 186,
   223–225
   Rolling, of metals, 570–571, 850
   Rouge, 546
   Rovings, 648
   Rubbers, 109, 117
   natural, see Natural rubber
   (polyisoprene)
   synthetic, 116, 552, 554, 555–556
   trade names, characteristics, and
   applications, 556
   Rubbery region, polymers, 220
   Ruby, see also Aluminum oxide
   lasers, 778–779
   optical characteristics, 773
   Rule of mixtures, 850
   composites, 620–621, 629, 631,
   632, 633, 634, 643
   electrical resistivity, 470
   Rupture, 326, 850
   Rupture lifetime, 327
   extrapolation of, 329–330
   Rust, 663
   Ruthenium, 538
   S
   Sacrificial anodes, 690, 850
   Safe stress, 232, 850
   Safety factors, 232, 302
   Samarium-cobalt magnets, 746
   Samarium-iron garnet, 756
   Sand casting, 572
   Sandwich panels, 619, 651–652, 850
   Sapphire, see also Aluminum oxide
   optical transmittance, 773
   Saturated hydrocarbons, 99, 850
   Saturation, extrinsic
   semiconductors, 482
   Saturation magnetization, 730, 734,
   737–738, 850
   temperature dependence, 736
   SBR, see Styrene-butadiene rubber
   Scaling, 691
   Scanning electron microscopy, 153,
   850
   Scanning probe microscopy, 12,
   127, 153–154, 850
   Scanning tunneling microscope, 60
   Schottky defect, 130–131, 177, 850
   equilibrium number, 132–133
   Scission, 697, 850
   Scleroscope hardness, 226
   Screw dislocations, 141, 143, 244,
   245, 850. See also Dislocations
   in polymers, 137
   Seawater, as corrosion
   environment, 688
   Secant modulus, 193–194
   Secondary bonds, 31–32, 850
   Secondary creep, 326–327
   Segregation, 355
   Selective leaching, 685, 850
   Self-diffusion, 163, 850
   Self-interstitials, 129, 850
   SEM, see Scanning electron
   microscopy
   Semiconductor devices, 489–496
   Semiconductor lasers, 780–781
   Semiconductors:
   band structure, 465, 466–467
   carbon nanotubes as, 60
   in computers, 494
   costs, 831, 832
   defined, 11, 463, 850
   extrinsic, 477–481, 843
   fullerenes as, 59
   intrinsic, 474–477, 845
   intrinsic carrier concentration,
   475, 481
   light absorption, 768–770878 • Index
   Semiconductors (continued)
   n-type, 477–479, 847
   p-type, 479–480, 849
   temperature dependence:
   electron concentration, n-type
   Si, 482
   electron mobility, Si, 484
   hole mobility, Si, 484
   intrinsic carrier concentration of
   Ge, 481
   intrinsic carrier concentration of
   Si, 481
   Semicrystalline polymers, 119
   deformation mechanisms:
   elastic, 272–273
   plastic, 274, 275
   Sensors, 12, 547
   Severity of quench, 581
   Shape memory:
   alloys, 12
   phase transformations, 439–441
   Shear deformation, 189, 211
   Shear modulus, 195
   relationship to elastic modulus,
   197
   selected metals, 193
   Shear strain, 191, 850
   Shear stress, 191, 850
   resolved, 250
   resolved from tensile stress,
   191–192
   Shear tests, 191
   Sheet glass forming (float process),
   592–593
   Shot peening, 324
   Shrinkage, clay products, 597–598
   Shrink-wrap polymer films, 278
   Silica, 54
   crystalline and noncrystalline
   structures, 88
   fibers for optical communications,
   549, 784–785
   fused, see Fused silica
   as refractory, 544
   Silica-alumina phase diagram, 377
   Silica glasses, 89
   viscosity, 591
   Silicates:
   glasses, 89
   layered, 55–56
   tetrahedral structure, 54
   types and structures, 54–57, 89
   Silicon:
   bonding energy and melting
   temperature, 28
   conduction in, 476
   cost, 832
   electrical characteristics, 474
   electron concentration vs.
   temperature, n-type, 482
   electron/hole mobility vs.
   impurity concentration, 483
   electron/hole mobility vs.
   temperature, 484
   fracture toughness, 548
   intrinsic carrier concentration vs.
   temperature, 481
   in MEMS, 548
   vacancy (surface), 127
   Silicon carbide:
   as abrasive, 545
   flexural strength, 205, 812
   hardness, 229
   modulus of elasticity, 193, 806
   properties as whiskers and fibers,
   636
   as refractory, 545
   Silicon dioxide, see Silica
   Silicone rubber, 554–556
   characteristics and applications,
   556
   degradation resistance, 696
   Silicon nitride:
   ceramic ball bearings, 549
   compressive strength, 549
   flexural strength, 205, 812
   fracture strength distribution, 305
   hardness, 549
   modulus of elasticity, 193, 806
   properties as a whisker, 636
   Silly putty, 218
   Silver, 538
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   electrical conductivity, 469, 471
   slip systems, 249
   thermal properties, 709
   Simple cubic crystal structure, 92
   Single crystals, 80, 850
   slip in, 250–253
   Sintered aluminum powder (SAP),
   624
   Sintering, 601, 850
   SI units, 799–800
   Ski, cross-section, 617
   Slip, 199, 245, 850
   compared to twinning, 256
   polycrystalline metals, 253–255
   single crystals, 250–253
   Slip casting, 596–597, 850
   Slip direction, 248
   Slip lines, 251, 254
   Slip plane, 244, 245, 248
   Slip systems, 248–249, 850
   selected metals, 249
   Small-angle grain boundaries, 145,
   258
   Smart materials, 11–12
   Societal considerations, materials
   science, 792–797
   Soda-lime glasses:
   composition, 541
   dielectric properties, 500
   electrical conductivity, 496
   thermal properties, 709
   thermal shock, 718
   viscosity, 591
   Sodium chloride:
   bonding energy and melting
   temperature, 28
   ionic bonding, 27
   structure, 49, 80
   Sodium-silicate glass, 89
   Softening point (glass), 590, 851
   Soft magnetic materials, 741–744,
   851
   properties, 744
   Soils, as corrosion environments,
   689
   Soldering, 362, 573, 851
   Solders, lead-free, 362
   Solid-solution strengthening,
   259–260, 355, 851
   Solid solutions, 134–135, 851
   in ceramics, 135
   intermediate, 369, 372, 845
   interstitial, 134–135, 845
   in metals, 134–135
   ordered, 369, 531
   terminal, 369, 852
   Solidus line, 346, 356, 851
   Solubility limit, 341, 851
   factors that influence for solid
   phases, 134
   Solutes, 851
   defined, 133
   Solution heat treatment, 442, 851
   Solvents, 851
   defined, 133
   Solvus line, 356, 851
   Sonar, use of piezoelectric ceramics
   in, 550
   Specific heat, 706, 851
   values for selected materials, 709,
   822–824Index • 879
   Specific modulus, 625, 851
   selected fiber-reinforcement
   materials, 636
   Specific strength, 533, 625, 851
   selected fiber-reinforcement
   materials, 636
   Sphalerite structure, 50, 51
   Spheroidite, 419–421, 851
   hardness and ductility, 432
   Spheroidization, 577, 851
   Spherulites, in polymers, 97,
   121–122, 851
   alteration during deformation,
   272–275
   photomicrograph of
   polyethylene, 123
   transmission electron
   micrograph, 97
   Spinel, 51, 79, 374
   flexural strength, 205
   index of refraction, 767
   modulus of elasticity, 193
   structure, 79
   thermal properties, 709
   Spin magnetic moment, 19, 727
   Spinnerets, 610
   Spinning, polymer fibers, 610–611,
   851
   Stabilized zirconia, 377, 645
   Stabilizers, 606–607, 851
   Stacking faults, 147
   Stainless steels, 521–523, 851.
   See also Ferrous alloys;
   specific steels
   compositions, properties, and
   applications for selected, 523
   creep resistance, 331
   electrical conductivity, 469
   passivity, 678
   thermal properties, 709
   weld decay, 685
   Standard deviation, 230–231
   Standard emf series, 665–667
   Standard half-cells, 665, 851
   Static fatigue, 304
   Steady-state creep rate, 327
   Steady-state diffusion, 851
   Steatite, dielectric properties, 500
   Steels, 383. See also Alloy steels;
   Stainless steels
   AISI/SAE designation scheme,
   520
   classification, 423, 518
   costs, 829–830
   elastic and shear moduli, 193
   electrical conductivity, 469
   fatigue behavior (1045), 336
   heat treatments, 576–588
   impact energy, 314
   magnetic properties, 746
   overview of types, 517–523
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   300, 814
   Poisson’s ratio, 193
   properties as wires (fiber
   reinforcement), 636
   thermal properties, 709
   yield and tensile strengths,
   ductility (1020), 205
   Step reaction polymerization, see
   Condensation polymerization
   Stereoisomerism, 851
   polymers, 112–113
   Sterling silver, 133, 538
   Stiffness, see Modulus of elasticity
   Stoichiometry, 131, 851
   Stone age, 2
   Strain, 190. See also Stress-strain
   behavior
   engineering, 190, 851
   lattice, 246–247, 260, 446, 846
   shear, 191, 850
   true, 208, 853
   Strain hardening, 210, 260–263,
   570, 851
   corrosion and, 680
   influence on electrical resistivity,
   470, 471
   influence on mechanical
   properties, 261, 262
   recrystallization after, 264–267
   Strain-hardening exponent, 208,
   262
   determination of, 239
   selected metal alloys, 209
   Strain point (glass), 590, 851
   Strength, 200
   flexural, 211–212, 844
   fracture, 201
   ranges for material types (bar
   chart), 7
   Strengthening of metals:
   grain size reduction, 257–258
   mechanism, 257
   solid-solution strengthening,
   259–260
   strain hardening, see Strain
   hardening
   Stress, see also Stress-strain
   behavior
   critical (for fracture), 297
   effect on creep, 328–329
   engineering, 189, 851
   mean (fatigue), 315, 316, 323
   normal (resolved from pure
   tensile), 191–192
   range (fatigue), 315, 316
   residual, see Residual stresses
   safe, 232, 850
   shear, 191, 192, 250, 850
   shear (resolved from pure
   tensile), 191–192
   thermal, see Thermal stresses
   true, 207, 853
   working, 232
   Stress amplitude, 315, 316
   Stress concentration, 293–297, 310,
   323, 851
   polymers, 308
   Stress concentration factor, 296
   Stress corrosion cracking, 660,
   686–687, 851
   in ceramics, 304
   Stress raisers, 295, 323, 851
   in ceramics, 213, 304
   Stress ratio, 316
   Stress relaxation measurements,
   219
   Stress relief annealing, 575, 851
   Stress state, geometric
   considerations, 191–192
   Stress-strain behavior:
   alloy steel, 236
   brass, 202
   ceramics, 213
   composite, fibrous (longitudinal),
   628
   elastic deformation, 192–194
   natural rubber, vulcanized and
   unvulcanized, 280
   nonlinear (elastic), 194
   plastic deformation, 200–203
   polymers, 215–217
   shape-memory alloys, 441
   for steel, variation with percent
   cold work, 262
   true, 208
   Striations (fatigue), 320–322
   Structural clay products, 543, 851
   Structural composites, 650–652, 851
   Structure, 3
   atomic, 16–23
   definition, 852
   Structures, crystal, see Crystal
   structures880 • Index
   Styrene, 118
   Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR),
   117
   characteristics and applications,
   553
   degradation resistance, 696
   Styrenic block copolymers, 558,
   562–563
   Styrofoam, 716
   Substitutional impurity defects, 134
   Substitutional solid solutions, 134,
   852
   Superalloys, 538
   creep resistance, 331
   fiber reinforcement, 644
   Superconductivity, 750–753, 852
   applications, 753
   Superconductors, 750
   critical properties, 752
   high-temperature, 753
   types I and II, 751–752
   Supercooling, 407, 414, 852
   degrees for homogeneous
   nucleation, 407
   Superficial Rockwell hardness
   tests, 223, 224
   Superheating, 414, 852
   Super Invar, 709, 712
   as low-expansion alloy, 712
   Supermalloy, magnetic properties,
   744
   Surface energy, 144, 403
   Susceptibility, magnetic, 726
   Symbols, list, xxiii-xxv
   Syndiotactic configuration, 113, 852
   Synthetic rubbers, 116–117, 556,
   696
   Systems:
   definition, 340, 852
   homogeneous vs. heterogeneous,
   342
   T
   Talc, 57
   Tangent modulus, 193–194
   Tantalum, 536, 538
   Tape casting, 602–603
   Tarnishing, 691
   Tear strength, polymers, 228
   Teflon, see Polytetrafluoroethylene
   TEM, see Transmission electron
   microscopy
   Temperature gradient, 711
   thermal stresses, 717
   Temper designation, 533, 852
   Tempered martensite, 434–437, 852
   hardness vs. carbon content, 433
   mechanical properties vs.
   tempering temperature, 436
   dependence on cylinder diameter,
   586–587
   Temper embrittlement, 437
   Tempering:
   glass, 305, 593–594, 615
   steels, 434–437
   Tennis balls (nanocomposites in),
   653–654
   Tensile strength, 200–201, 852
   carbon nanotubes, 60
   correlation with hardness, 227
   fibrous composites, 632–633
   fine pearlite, 431
   influence of recrystallization on,
   267
   ranges for material types (bar
   chart), 7
   selected fiber-reinforcement
   materials, 636
   tempered martensite, 436
   values for various materials, 205,
   804–807
   Tensile test apparatus, 188–190
   Tensile tests, 188–190. See also
   Stress-strain behavior
   Terephthalic acid (structure), 605
   Terminal solid solutions, 369, 852
   Ternary phase diagrams, 378
   Tertiary creep, 326, 327
   Tetragonal crystal system, 61, 62
   Tetrahedral position, 79, 732, 852
   Textile fibers, 557
   Texture:
   magnetic, 82, 743
   rolling (sheet, BCC iron), 743
   Thermal conduction, 707, 713
   Thermal conductivity, 711, 712–716
   influence of impurities, 714
   selected materials, 709, 819–821
   Thermal diffusivity, 720
   Thermal expansion, 708–711, 713
   linear coefficient of, 325, 708,
   716–718, 852
   selected materials, 709, 815–818
   volume coefficient of, 709
   Thermal fatigue, 325, 852
   Thermally activated processes, 411,
   852
   Thermal properties, 706. See also
   specific thermal properties
   selected materials, 709, 815–824
   Thermal shock, 593, 711, 852
   brittle materials, 717–718
   maximum temperature change
   without, 721
   Thermal shock resistance, 717–718
   Thermal stresses, 325, 716–718, 852
   avoidance at metal-to-glass
   junctions, 712
   glass, 593
   Thermal tempering (glass),
   593–594, 852
   Thermoplastic elastomers, 561–563,
   852
   Thermoplastic polymers, 115, 852
   characteristics and applications,
   553–554
   degradation resistance, 696
   forming techniques, 607–610
   Thermosetting polymers, 115, 852
   characteristics and applications,
   554
   degradation resistance, 696
   forming techniques, 607–610
   Thin film magnetic recording
   media, 748–750
   Thoria-dispersed (TD) nickel, 624
   Tie lines, 347, 852
   Tilt boundaries, 145, 146
   Time-temperature-transformation
   diagrams, see Isothermal
   transformation diagrams
   Tin, 538, 540
   allotropic transformation for, 63
   crystal structures, 58, 63
   density, 803
   electrical resistivity, 825
   mechanical properties, 806, 808,
   811
   recrystallization temperature, 268
   superconducting critical
   temperature, 752
   thermal properties, 816, 820, 823
   Tin cans, 691
   Tin-gold phase diagram, 397
   Titanium:
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   density, 802
   elastic and shear moduli, 193
   electrical resistivity, 825
   Poisson’s ratio, 193, 808
   slip systems, 249
   superconducting critical
   temperature, 752
   thermal properties, 816, 819, 822Index • 881
   yield and tensile strengths,
   ductility, 205, 811
   Titanium alloys, 535–536, 537
   compositions, 828
   densities, 802
   electrical resistivities, 825
   mechanical properties, 805, 808,
   811
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   300, 814
   properties and applications of,
   537
   thermal properties, 816, 819,
   822
   Tool steels, 521, 522
   Top-down science, 12
   Torque, 189
   Torsion, 191
   Torsional deformation, 189, 211
   Torsional tests, 191
   Toughness, 206–207, 852
   Tows, 648
   Trade names:
   selected elastomers, 556
   selected plastics, 553–554
   Trans, 114, 852
   Transducers, 508, 550
   Transfer molding, plastics, 608
   Transformation rate, 411–413,
   852
   temperature dependence, 411
   Transformation toughening,
   645–646
   Transformer cores, 743
   Transgranular fracture, 293, 295,
   852
   Transient creep, 326
   Transistors, 491–494
   Transition metals, 24
   Transition temperature,
   ductile-brittle, see
   Ductile-to-brittle transition
   Translucency, 763, 852
   insulators, 774–775
   Transmission (of light), 771–772
   Transmission electron microscopy,
   144, 152–153, 852
   Transmissivity, 763
   Transparency, 763, 853
   Transverse bending test, 211–212
   equation for maximum
   deflection, 239, 642
   Transverse direction, 627, 853
   Transverse loading, composites,
   631–632
   Triclinic crystal system, 61, 62
   anisotropy in, 82
   Tridymite, 54
   Trifunctional (polymers), 105, 853
   Trigonal crystal system,
   see Rhombohedral crystal
   system
   Triple point, 345
   True stress/strain, 207–209, 853
   T-T-T diagrams, see Isothermal
   transformation diagrams
   Tungsten, 536
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   bonding energy and melting
   temperature, 28
   density, 802
   diffraction pattern, 96
   elastic and shear moduli, 193
   electrical resistivity, 825
   Poisson’s ratio, 193, 808
   properties as wire, 636
   recrystallization temperature,
   268
   slip systems, 249
   superconducting critical
   temperature, 752
   thermal properties, 709, 816, 820,
   823
   yield and tensile strengths,
   ductility, 811
   Tungsten carbide:
   as abrasive, 545
   hardness, 229
   Turbine blades, 331
   Twin boundaries, 146–147
   Twinning, 255–256
   compared to slip, 256
   role in shape-memory effect,
   439–441
   Twins, 146
   U
   Undercooling, see Supercooling
   UHMWPE (Ultrahigh molecular
   weight polyethylene),
   559–560, 853
   properties as a fiber, 636
   Unary phase diagrams, 343–345
   Uniaxial powder pressing, 600
   Unidirectional solidification, 331
   Uniform corrosion, 680
   Unit cells, 39–40, 853. See also
   Crystal structures
   crystal systems, 61, 62
   Units:
   electrical and dielectric
   parameters, 503
   magnetic parameters, 726
   SI, 799–800
   Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 99,
   853
   UNS designation scheme, 521
   Upper critical temperature, 576,
   853
   Upper yield point, 199, 200
   V
   Vacancies, 128–129, 853
   in ceramics, 130
   diffusion, 164, 177, 853
   equilibrium number, 128
   in polymers, 136
   Valence band, 465, 853
   Valence electrons, 21, 853
   van der Waals bonding, 31–32, 34,
   853
   in clays, 57
   gecko lizards, 15
   hydrocarbons, 99
   in polymers, 110, 274
   Vibrational heat capacity, 706–707
   Vibrations, atomic, 147, 149,
   706–707
   Vickers hardness tests, 224, 226
   Video cassette recorders, 748
   Vinyl esters, polymer-matrix
   composites, 641
   Vinyls, 554
   Viscoelastic creep, 221–222
   Viscoelasticity, 196, 218–222, 853
   Viscoelastic relaxation modulus,
   218–222, 850
   Viscosity, 271–272, 615, 853
   temperature dependence for
   glasses, 591
   Viscous flow:
   in ceramics, 271–272
   in polymers, 221
   Visible spectrum, 761
   Vision (glass ceramic), 542
   Vitreous silica, see Fused silica
   Vitrification, 598, 853
   Volatile organic compound (VOC)
   emissions, 557
   Volume defects, 147
   Volume expansion coefficient, 709
   Volume fraction (phase), 351
   Vulcanization, 110, 279–280, 853
   Vycor, 542882 • Index
   W
   Wallner line, 308
   Water:
   as corrosion environment, 688
   bonding energy and melting
   temperature, 28
   desalination of, 180
   hydrogen bonding in, 32, 33
   phase diagram
   (pressure-temperature), 344,
   398
   as quenching medium, 581–582
   volume expansion upon freezing,
   33
   Wave-mechanical atomic model,
   18, 853
   Weathering, of polymers, 699
   Weight-average molecular weight,
   106–107
   Weight percent, 136–139, 853
   Weld decay, 685, 853
   Welding, 573–574, 853
   Wetting, 409
   Whiskers, 298, 636, 853
   White cast iron, 526, 528, 529, 853
   Whitewares, 540, 543, 594–595, 853
   Wiedemann-Franz constant, 713
   values of, for metals, 709
   Wiedemann-Franz law, 713
   Wires, 636
   Wood:
   as composite, 618
   cost, 833
   density, 804
   electrical resistivity, 827
   modulus of elasticity, 807
   specific heat, 824
   tensile strength, 813
   thermal conductivity, 821
   thermal expansion coefficient, 818
   Work hardening, see Strain
   hardening
   Working point (glass), 590–591, 853
   Working range (glass), 590–591
   Working stress, 232
   Wrought alloys, 530, 853
   W ¨ ustite, 131, 514
   X
   X-ray diffraction, 37, 83–87
   X-rays, 760, 761
   Y
   Yielding, 200, 853
   Yield point phenomenon, 200, 201
   Yield strength, 200, 202, 215–216,
   853
   dependence on grain size (brass),
   258
   fine pearlite, 431
   precipitation hardened aluminum
   alloy, 445
   tempered martensite, 436
   values for various materials, 205,
   300, 809–813
   Young’s modulus, see Modulus of
   elasticity
   Yttrium barium copper oxide, 752,
   753
   Yttrium iron garnet (YIG), 733
   Z
   Zinc:
   atomic radius and crystal
   structure, 40
   density, 803
   electrical resistivity, 826
   mechanical properties, 806, 808,
   811
   recrystallization temperature, 268
   slip systems, 249
   thermal properties, 816, 820, 823
   Zinc alloys, 540
   Zinc blende structure, 50, 51
   Zinc telluride, electrical
   characteristics, 474
   Zirconia, 545
   density, 803
   electrical resistivity, 826
   flexural strength, 205, 812
   modulus of elasticity, 193, 806
   plane strain fracture toughness,
   815
   Poisson’s ratio, 808
   as refractory, 545
   stabilized, 377
   transformation toughening, 645
   Zirconia-calcia phase diagram, 376
   Zirconium:
   alloys, 540
   density, 803
   electrical resistivity, 826
   mechanical properties, 806, 808,
   811
   slip systems, 249
   thermal properties, 816, 820, 823

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