Physics II For Dummies

Physics II For Dummies
Steven Holzner, PhD
Author of Physics For Dummies
Learn to:
• Grasp physics terminology
• Get a handle on quantum and nuclear physics
• Understand waves, forces, and fields
• Make sense of electric potential and energy
Contents at a Glance
Introduction 1
Part I: Understanding Physics Fundamentals . 7
Chapter 1: Understanding Your World: Physics II, the Sequel 9
Chapter 2: Gearing Up for Physics II .19
Part II: Doing Some Field Work:
Electricity and Magnetism 35
Chapter 3: Getting All Charged Up with Electricity .37
Chapter 4: The Attraction of Magnetism 61
Chapter 5: Alternating Current and Voltage .87
Part III: Catching On to Waves:
The Sound and Light Kinds . 113
Chapter 6: Exploring Waves .115
Chapter 7: Now Hear This: The Word on Sound 127
Chapter 8: Seeing the Light: When Electricity and Magnetism Combine .155
Chapter 9: Bending and Focusing Light: Refraction and Lenses .175
Chapter 10: Bouncing Light Waves: Refl ection and Mirrors 205
Chapter 11: Shedding Light on Light Wave Interference and Diffraction .221
Part IV: Modern Physics . 247
Chapter 12: Heeding What Einstein Said: Special Relativity 249
Chapter 13: Understanding Energy and Matter as Both Particles and Waves .273
Chapter 14: Getting the Little Picture: The Structure of Atoms 295
Chapter 15: Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity .319
Part V: The Part of Tens . 339
Chapter 16: Ten Physics Experiments That Changed the World 341
Chapter 17: Ten Online Problem-Solving Tools .347
Index 353Table of Contents
Introduction . 1
About This Book 1
Conventions Used in This Book .2
What You’re Not to Read 2
Foolish Assumptions .3
How This Book Is Organized 3
Part I: Understanding Physics Fundamentals 3
Part II: Doing Some Field Work: Electricity and Magnetism .4
Part III: Catching On to Waves: The Sound and Light Kinds 4
Part IV: Modern Physics 4
Part V: The Part of Tens 4
Icons Used in This Book .5
Where to Go from Here .5
Part I: Understanding Physics Fundamentals . 7
Chapter 1: Understanding Your World: Physics II, the Sequel . . . . . . .9
Getting Acquainted with Electricity and Magnetism 10
Looking at static charges and electric field 10
Moving on to magnetism .11
AC circuits: Regenerating current with
electric and magnetic fields 11
Riding the Waves .12
Getting along with sound waves 12
Figuring out what light is 12
Refl ection and refraction: Bouncing and bending light 13
Searching for images: Lenses and mirrors .14
Calling interference: When light collides with light 15
Branching Out with Modern Physics 15
Shedding light on blackbodies: Warm bodies
make their own light 15
Speeding up with relativity: Yes, E = mc2 16
Assuming a dual identity: Matter travels in waves, too 16
Meltdown! Knowing the αβγ’s of radioactivity .17viii Physics II For Dummies
Chapter 2: Gearing Up for Physics II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Math and Measurements: Reviewing Those Basic Skills 19
Using the MKS and CGS systems of measurement 20
Making common conversions 20
Keeping it short with scientific notation 24
Brushing up on basic algebra .24
Using some trig 25
Using significant digits 26
Refreshing Your Physics Memory .27
Pointing the way with vectors 28
Moving along with velocity and acceleration 29
Strong-arm tactics: Applying some force 30
Getting around to circular motion 30
Getting electrical with circuits .32
Part II: Doing Some Field Work:
Electricity and Magnetism 35
Chapter 3: Getting All Charged Up with Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Understanding Electric Charges 37
Can’t lose it: Charge is conserved .38
Measuring electric charges 38
Opposites attract: Repelling and attracting forces .39
Getting All Charged Up .40
Static electricity: Building up excess charge 40
Checking out charging methods 41
Considering the medium: Conductors and insulators 43
Coulomb’s Law: Calculating the Force between Charges 44
Introducing Electric Fields .45
Sheets of charge: Presenting basic fields 45
Looking at electric fi elds from charged objects 47
Uniform electric fi elds: Taking it easy
with parallel plate capacitors .48
Shielding: The electric fi eld inside conductors 50
Voltage: Realizing Potential 52
Getting the lowdown on electric potential .52
Finding the work to move charges 53
Finding the electric potential from charges .54
Illustrating equipotential surfaces for point charges and plates .56
Storing Charge: Capacitors and Dielectrics .57
Figuring out how much capacitors hold .57
Getting extra storage with dielectrics .58
Calculating the energy of capacitors with dielectrics .59Table of Contents ix
Chapter 4: The Attraction of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
All About Magnetism: Linking Magnetism and Electricity .62
Electron loops: Understanding permanent
magnets and magnetic materials .62
North to south: Going polar .63
Defi ning magnetic field 65
Moving Along: Magnetic Forces on Charges 66
Finding the magnitude of magnetic force .66
Finding direction with the right-hand rule .67
A lazy direction: Seeing how magnetic fi elds avoid work .68
Going orbital: Following charged particles in magnetic fields .69
Down to the Wire: Magnetic Forces on Electrical Currents .74
From speed to current: Getting current in the
magnetic-force formula .74
Torque: Giving current a twist in electric motors .76
Going to the Source: Getting Magnetic Field from Electric Current .79
Producing a magnetic fi eld with a straight wire 79
Getting centered: Finding magnetic fi eld from current loops 82
Adding loops together: Making uniform fi elds with solenoids 84
Chapter 5: Alternating Current and Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
AC Circuits and Resistors: Opposing the Flow 87
Finding Ohm’s law for alternating voltage 88
Averaging out: Using root-mean-square current and voltage 89
Staying in phase: Connecting resistors
to alternating voltage sources 90
AC Circuits and Capacitors: Storing Charge in Electric Field 91
Introducing capacitive reactance 92
Getting out of phase: Current leads the voltage 94
Preserving power .95
AC Circuits and Inductors: Storing Energy in Magnetic Field 95
Faraday’s law: Understanding how inductors work 96
Introducing inductive reactance 101
Getting behind: Current lags voltage .102
The Current-Voltage Race: Putting It Together
in Series RLC Circuits 103
Impedance: The combined effects of resistors,
inductors, and capacitors .104
Determining the amount of leading or lagging .106
Peak Experiences: Finding Maximum Current in a Series RLC Circuit .109
Canceling out reactance 109
Finding resonance frequency .109
Semiconductors and Diodes: Limiting Current Direction 110
The straight dope: Making semiconductors .111
One-way current: Creating diodes .112x Physics II For Dummies
Part III: Catching On to Waves:
The Sound and Light Kinds 113
Chapter 6: Exploring Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Energy Travels: Doing the Wave 115
Up and down: Transverse waves .116
Back and forth: Longitudinal waves 117
Wave Properties: Understanding What Makes Waves Tick .117
Examining the parts of a wave .117
Relating the parts of a wave mathematically .119
Watching for the sine: Graphs of waves .121
When Waves Collide: Wave Behavior .124
Chapter 7: Now Hear This: The Word on Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Vibrating Just to Be Heard: Sound Waves as Vibrations 127
Cranking Up the Volume: Pressure, Power, and Intensity .129
Under pressure: Measuring the amplitude of sound waves .130
Introducing sound intensity .131
Calculating the Speed of Sound .133
Fast: The speed of sound in gases .134
Faster: The speed of sound in liquids .136
Fastest: The speed of sound in solids .137
Analyzing Sound Wave Behavior .139
Echoing back: Refl ecting sound waves .139
Sharing spaces: Sound wave interference 141
Bending rules: Sound wave diffraction .148
Coming and going with the Doppler effect .149
Breaking the sound barrier: Shock waves 152
Chapter 8: Seeing the Light: When Electricity
and Magnetism Combine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Let There Be Light! Generating and Receiving
Electromagnetic Waves .155
Creating an alternating electric field .156
Getting an alternating magnetic fi eld to match 157
Receiving radio waves .159
Looking at Rainbows: Understanding the Electromagnetic Spectrum 161
Perusing the electromagnetic spectrum .161
Relating the frequency and wavelength of light 163
See Ya Later, Alligator: Finding the Top Speed of Light .164
Checking out the first speed-of-light
experiment that actually worked .165
Calculating the speed of light theoretically 167
You’ve Got the Power: Determining the Energy Density of Light .169
Finding instantaneous energy 169
Averaging light’s energy density 172Table of Contents xi
Chapter 9: Bending and Focusing Light: Refraction and Lenses . . . .175
Wave Hello to Rays: Drawing Light Waves More Simply 175
Slowing Light Down: The Index of Refraction 177
Figuring out the slowdown .177
Calculating the bending: Snell’s law 179
Rainbows: Separating wavelengths .180
Bending Light to Get Internal Reflection 182
Right back at you: Total internal reflection 182
Polarized light: Getting a partial reflection .184
Getting Visual: Creating Images with Lenses .187
Defi ning objects and images .187
Now it’s coming into focus: Concave and convex lenses .188
Drawing ray diagrams .190
Getting Numeric: Finding Distances and Magnification 194
Going the distance with the thin-lens equation 194
Sizing up the magnification equation 197
Combining Lenses for More Magnification Power 199
Understanding how microscopes and telescopes work .199
Getting a new angle on magnification .202
Chapter 10: Bouncing Light Waves: Refl ection and Mirrors . . . . . . .205
The Plane Truth: Refl ecting on Mirror Basics 205
Getting the angles on plane mirrors 206
Forming images in plane mirrors .207
Finding the mirror size 208
Working with Spherical Mirrors 210
Getting the inside scoop on concave mirrors 212
Smaller and smaller: Seeing convex mirrors at work 215
The Numbers Roundup: Using Equations for Spherical Mirrors .216
Getting numerical with the mirror equation 217
Discovering whether it’s bigger or smaller: Magnification .219
Chapter 11: Shedding Light on Light Wave
Interference and Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
When Waves Collide: Introducing Light Interference .222
Meeting at the bars: In phase with constructive interference .222
Going dark: Out of phase with destructive interference 224
Interference in Action: Getting Two Coherent Light Sources 226
Splitting light with double slits 227
Gasoline-puddle rainbows: Splitting light
with thin-film interference 231
Single-Slit Diffraction: Getting Interference from Wavelets 235
Huygens’s principle: Looking at how diffraction
works with a single slit 236
Getting the bars in the diffraction pattern .237
Doing diffraction calculations 240xii Physics II For Dummies
Multiple Slits: Taking It to the Limit with Diffraction Gratings 241
Separating colors with diffraction gratings 241
Trying some diffraction-grating calculations .242
Seeing Clearly: Resolving Power and Diffraction from a Hole .243
Part IV: Modern Physics . 247
Chapter 12: Heeding What Einstein Said: Special Relativity. . . . . . .249
Blasting Off with Relativity Basics .250
Start from where you’re standing: Understanding
reference frames 250
Looking at special relativity’s postulates .252
Seeing Special Relativity at Work 253
Slowing time: Chilling out with time dilation .254
Packing it in: Length contraction .259
Pow! Gaining momentum near the speed of light 262
Here It Is! Equating Mass and Energy with E = mc2 .264
An object’s rest energy: The energy you
could get from the mass 265
An object’s kinetic energy: The energy of motion .267
Skipping PE .270
New Math: Adding Velocities Near Light Speed 270
Chapter 13: Understanding Energy and Matter
as Both Particles and Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Blackbody Radiation: Discovering the Particle Nature of Light 274
Understanding the trouble with blackbody radiation 274
Being discrete with Planck’s constant 275
Light Energy Packets: Advancing with the Photoelectric Effect .276
Understanding the mystery of the photoelectric effect .276
Einstein to the rescue: Introducing photons 277
Explaining why electrons’ kinetic energy
is independent of intensity .279
Explaining why electrons are emitted instantly 280
Doing calculations with the photoelectric effect .281
Collisions: Proving the Particle Nature
of Light with the Compton Effect .282
The de Broglie Wavelength: Observing the Wave Nature of Matter .285
Interfering electrons: Confi rming de Broglie’s hypothesis .286
Calculating wavelengths of matter 286
Not Too Sure about That: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 288
Understanding uncertainty in electron diffraction 288
Deriving the uncertainty relation 289
Calculations: Seeing the uncertainty principle in action 292Table of Contents xiii
Chapter 14: Getting the Little Picture: The Structure of Atoms . . . . .295
Figuring Out the Atom: The Planetary Model 296
Rutherford scattering: Finding the nucleus
from ricocheting alpha particles 296
Collapsing atoms: Challenging Rutherford’s planetary model 297
Answering the challenges: Being discrete with line spectra 298
Fixing the Planetary Model of the Hydrogen Atom:
The Bohr Model .301
Finding the allowed energies of electrons in the Bohr atom .302
Getting the allowed radii of electron orbits in the Bohr atom .303
Finding the Rydberg constant using
the line spectrum of hydrogen .306
Putting it all together with energy level diagrams .307
De Broglie weighs in on Bohr: Giving a reason
for quantization 308
Electron Confi guration: Relating Quantum Physics and the Atom .309
Understanding four quantum numbers 310
Number crunching: Figuring out the number
of quantum states 312
Multi-electron atoms: Placing electrons with
the Pauli exclusion principle 314
Using shorthand notation for electron configuration 316
Chapter 15: Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
Grooving on Nuclear Structure 319
Now for a little chemistry: Sorting out atomic
mass and number .320
Neutron numbers: Introducing isotopes 321
Boy, that’s small: Finding the radius
and volume of the nucleus 323
Calculating the density of the nucleus 323
The Strong Nuclear Force: Keeping Nuclei Pretty Stable .324
Finding the repelling force between protons .325
Holding it together with the strong force .325
Hold on tight: Finding the binding energy of the nucleus 327
Understanding Types of Radioactivity, from α to γ 328
Releasing helium: Radioactive alpha decay .330
Gaining protons: Radioactive beta decay .331
Emitting photons: Radioactive gamma decay 332
Grab Your Geiger Counter: Half-Life and Radioactive Decay .333
Halftime: Introducing half-life .334
Decay rates: Introducing activity .336xiv Physics II For Dummies
Part V: The Part of Tens 339
Chapter 16: Ten Physics Experiments That Changed the World . . . .341
Michelson’s Measurement of the Speed of Light .342
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment: Light Is a Wave 342
Jumping Electrons: The Photoelectric Effect .343
Davisson and Germer’s Discovery of Matter Waves .343
Röntgen’s X-rays 344
Curie’s Discovery of Radioactivity 344
Rutherford’s Discovery of the Atom’s Nucleus .345
Putting a Spin on It: The Stern-Gerlach Experiment .345
The Atomic Age: The First Atomic Pile .346
Verifi cation of Special Relativity 346
Chapter 17: Ten Online Problem-Solving Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Vector Addition Calculator 347
Centripetal Acceleration (Circular Motion) Calculator 347
Energy Stored in a Capacitor Calculator 348
Electrical Resonance Frequency Calculator 348
Capacitive Reactance Calculator .349
Inductive Reactance Calculator .349
Frequency and Wavelength Calculator .349
Length Contraction Calculator 350
Relativity Calculator 350
Half-Life Calculator 351
Index . 353
Index
• A •
absolute reference frame, 252
absolute rest, 252
AC circuit
basic description of, 11
capacitor, 91–95
inductor, 95–99
resistor, 87–91
root-mean-square voltage,
89–90
acceleration
angular, 31
basic knowledge of, 29–30
centripetal, 251, 347–348
defined, 30
particle accelerator, 263
speed, 29–30
addition
relativistic speeds, 270–273
and significant fi gures, 27
vector, 29, 347
adiabatic constant, 134
air, index of refraction, 178
algebra, 24–25
alpha decay, 330–331
alpha particle, 296–297, 329
alternating electric field
(E field)
linearly polarized wave, 157
magnetic field, 157–159
oscillating charge, 156
polarity of potential
difference, 157
radio wave, 160
alternating voltage
basic description of, 11
connecting to resistor,
90–91
Ohm’s law for, 88–89
phase diagram of, 104
root-mean-square, 89
aluminum, 318
amplitude
sound wave, 128–129
vibration, 147
wave, 118–119
amu (atomic mass unit), 322
angle
Brewster’s, 185–186
critical, 183
phase, 123
of shock wave, 153–154
trigonometry, 25–26
angle of declination, 64
angle of incidence, 206
angle of reflection, 206
angular acceleration, 31
angular magnification,
202–203
angular momentum
Bohr model of atom,
303–304
conservation of, 329
Stern-Gerlach experiment,
345
angular momentum quantum
number,
310–311, 316
angular velocity, 31
antenna, 160–161, 223
antimatter, 265
antinode, 145
Archimedes’s burning
mirrors, 211
argon, 318
atom
Bohr model of, 301–306
as building block of matter,
295
carbon, 322
covalent bond, 315
electron transition in,
307–308
free atoms is gases, 298–299
ionic bond, 315
line spectra of, 298–299
multi-electron, 314–316
planetary model of, 296–300
plum pudding model of,
296–297
relating quantum physics
and, 309–313
atomic mass number, 321
atomic mass unit (amu), 322
atomic number, 314–316, 320
atomic pile, 346
average power, 89
Avogrado’s number, 322
• B •
B (boron), 111, 317
B field. See magnetic field
Balmer series of hydrogen,
299–301
bar magnet, 10, 62
beat decay, 331–332
beat frequency, 147–148
becquerel (Bq), 336
beryllium, 317
beta particle, 329
blackbody radiation
basic description of, 15–16
intensity versus
wavelength, 274
modern physics, 15
perfect blackbody, 274
Planck’s constant, 275
Rayleigh prediction, 274
blueshift, 258
Bohr, Niels (Bohr model
of atom)
allowed Bohr radii, 303–304
allowed energy for
hydrogen, 305
allowed energy for lithium
atom, 306
angular momentum,
303–304354 Physics II For Dummies
Bohr, Niels (continued)
basic description of, 301
finding allowed energies of
electrons in, 302–303
observed atomic
spectra, 302
boron (B), 111, 317
boundary condition, 139, 141
Bq (becquerel), 336
Brewster’s angle, 185–186
bulk modulus, 136
• C •
C (coulombs), 38
calculator
capacitive reactance, 349
centripetal acceleration,
347–348
energy stored in a
capacitor, 348
frequency, 349
half-life, 351
inductive reactance, 349
length contraction, 350
relativity, 350
resonance frequency, 348
vector addition, 347
wavelength, 349
capacitance, 92
capacitive reactance
calculator, 349
defi nition of, 92
effective resistance, 93
frequency, 93
capacitor
AC circuit, 91–95
alternating voltage and
current in, 94
alternating voltage source
connected across, 92
amount of charge stored in,
57–58
coulombs per volt (C/V), 58
defined, 91
energy calculation, 59, 348
MKS unit for, 58
preserving power, 95
as source of electric
current, 59
carbon
atom, 322
electron configuration, 317
half-life, 335
center of curvature, 190, 210,
212–213
centi- prefix, 23
centripetal acceleration
calculator, 347–348
frames of reference, 251
CGS (centimeter-gramsecond) system
converting between MKS
and CGS, 21–22
metric units of
measurement, 20
charge, 329. See also electric
charge
charge density, 49
charged object, 47
chemical bond, 315
chemical reaction, 315
chlorine, 318
Ci (curies), 336
circuit
basic knowledge of, 32–33
junction rule, 33
Kirchoff’s rule, 32–33
rules of resistance, 32
with two loops, 32
circular motion
angular velocity, 31
basic knowledge of, 30–32
linear kinetic energy, 32
moment of inertia, 31
object traveling in, 30–31
tangential direction, 30
coherent light sources,
222, 226–227
collector of electrons, 276
collision of electrons and
photons, 282–285
color, 180–181
commutator, 77
compression, 117
Compton, Arthur (physicist)
Compton effect, 282–285
wavelength, 284–285
concave lens, 189, 193
concave mirror
center of curvature,
212–213
object placement, 213–214
condensation, 127
conductor
defined, 42
electric fi eld inside, 50–51
valence electron, 44
conserved charge, 38
constant
adiabatic, 134
decay, 336
dielectric, 58–59
Planck’s, 275
Rydberg, 299, 306–307
constructive interference
light wave, 222–224, 228
sound wave, 141–142
contact, charging by, 41–42
control rod (in nuclear
reactor), 346
converging lens, 188
conversion
conversion factor, 22–23
description of, 20
energy, 21–22
equal unit, 21–22
force, 21
length, 21
mass, 21
metric prefixes, 23
between MKS and CGS
system, 21–22
from one unit to another,
22–23
power, 22
temperature, 24
convex lens, 188–189, 191
convex mirror, 215
coordinate system, 250–251
corrective lens, 200–201
cosine, 26
coulombs (C), 38, 44–45
Coulomb’s law, 44–45
coulombs per volt (C/V), 58
covalent bond, 315
critical angle, 183
Curie, Marie (discovery of
radioactivity), 344Index 355
curies (Ci), 336
current
basic description of, 11
in capacitor, 94–95
defined, 44
direction of, 44, 112
and impedance, 103–108
in inductor, 98, 100, 102–103
resonance frequency,
109–110
in RLC circuit, 109–110
root-mean-square, 107–108
curved surface, 188
C/V (coulombs per volt), 58
cycle, wave, 119
• D •
Davisson, Clinton (discovery
of matter waves),
343–344
de Broglie, Louis
quantization of angular
momentum, 308–309
wavelength, 285–288
decay constant, 336
decay rate, 336–337
decibel
intensity and decibels of
common sound, 133
measuring sound in, 132–133
decimal point
scientifi c notation, 24
significant fi gures, 27
decompression, 117
density
charge, 49
of nucleus, 323–324
speed of sound in liquid, 136
speed of sound in solid, 137
destructive interference
light wave, 224, 226, 228
sound wave, 141, 143
diamond, 178
dielectric
constant, 58–59
defined, 58
energy calculation, 59
between plates of parallel
plate capacitor, 58
diffraction
basic description of, 15
equation, 240–241
grating, 241–243
Huygens’s principle, 236
light wave interference, 221
resolving power value,
243–246
single-slit, 235–241
sound wave, 148–149
diffraction pattern, 237–240
digital signal, 223
diode, 111–112
distance, speed of sound
calculation, 135
distorted image, 211
diverging lens, 189
division and significant
figures, 27
domain, magnetic, 63
Doppler effect
basic description of, 12
frequency of sound,
151–152
moving toward source of
sound, 149–150
the source of sound
moving, 151
double-slit experiment
(Young)
“Experiments and
Calculations Relative
to Physical Optics”
(Young), 342
fi rst-order bright bar, 229
fringe, 229
getting an interference
pattern, 227–228
predicting light and dark
spots, 229–231
schematic for, 228–229
second-order bright bar, 229
zeroth-order bright bar, 229
• E •
E fi eld (alternating electric
field)
linearly polarized wave, 157
magnetic field, 157–159
oscillating charge, 156
polarity of potential
difference, 157
radio wave, 160
echo
boundary condition,
139, 141
pressure fluctuation, 140
refl ecting sound wave,
139–141
refl ection of single pulse of
pressure, 140
sound wave, 12
zero oscillation, 139
echolocation, 140
Einstein, Albert (physicist)
E = mc², 16
photoelectric effect,
280, 343
special relativity,
16, 249, 346
elastic medium, 117
electric charge
basic description of, 11, 37
charging by contact, 41–42
charging by induction, 42–43
conserved, 38
of electron, 38
force between charges, 39
measurement, 38
MKS and CGS units, 21
net charge, 38
and photocopiers, 40
point charge, 44
of proton, 38
repelling and attracting
forces, 39
static electricity, 40–41
electric current. See current
electric dipole, 169
electric energy density, 170
electric field
basic description of, 45–46
from charged object, 47
defined, 46
in electromagnetic wave,
156–157, 160, 184–185
force on a charge in, 46
inside conductor, 50–51356 Physics II For Dummies
electric field (continued)
newtons per coulomb
(N/C), 46
between parallel plate
capacitor, 48–50
positive test charge, 46
shielding from, 51
from two point charges,
47–48
uniform, 48–50
electric flux, 167
electric motor
forces, current, and
magnetic fi eld in, 77
torque, 78
electric permittivity of free
space, 168
electric potential energy.
See also voltage
basic description of, 52–53
electric field, 10
electron-volt (eV), 55
equipotential surface, 56–57
force, 10
lightning voltage, 53
point charge, 54–55
work, 53–54
electrical inductor, 100
electricity
basic description of, 10
electric field, 10
force between two
charges, 10
static, 40–41
electromagnetic spectrum
basic description of, 13, 161
frequency and wavelength
of light, 163–164
gamma ray, 163
infrared light, 162
microwave, 162, 169
radio wave, 162
ultraviolet light, 162
visible light, 162
X-ray, 163
electromagnetic wave
light as, 155–161
magnetic field, 79
radio wave, 158–161
electron
configuration, 316–318
discovery of, 296
electric charge of, 38
emitted instantly, 280
interference pattern of, 286
kinetic energy, 279–280
momentum, 283, 293
multi-electron atom,
314–316
photon and electron
collision, 282–285
quantum physics, 309–312
single-slit diffraction, 290
speed, 292–293
total energy, 302–303
transitions, 307–308
valence, 44, 315
electron-volt (eV), 55, 281
element symbol, 321
E = mc²
Einstein, 16
equation, 265
kinetic energy, 267–269
rest energy, 265–267
energy
of capacitor, 59
conversion, 21–22
converting between mass
and, 265–266
converting to mass, 266
of dielectric, 59
energy stored in a capacitor
calculator, 348
kinetic, 267–269
linear kinetic, 32
MKS and CGS units, 21
photon, 277
potential, 270
rest, 265–267
total, 267, 269–270
wave as transference of, 116
energy density
averaging, 172–174
electric, 170
electric and magnetic
combined, 171–172
equation, 171
instantaneous energy,
169–172
of light, 169–174
magnetic, 171–172
root-mean-square, 172
sun’s light on Earth, 173–174
energy level diagram,
307–308
equation
algebra, 24–25
diffraction, 240–241
diffraction grating,
242–243
E = mc², 265
energy density, 171
kinetic energy, 267–269
length contraction,
261–262
magnifi cation, 22, 197–199,
218–219
mirror, 216–219
with photoelectric effect,
281–282
resolving power, 245
rest energy, 266
temperature conversion, 24
thin-lens, 194–197, 217
time dilation, 257–260
equipotential surface, 56–57
eV (electron-volt), 55, 291
event, special relativity,
250, 253
“Experiments and
Calculations Relative to
Physical Optics” paper
(Young), 342
• F •
F (farad), 58
Faraday, Michael (Faraday’s
law)
basic description of, 12
inductor explained, 96–100
magnetic flux, 97–98
farsightedness, 200
ferromagnetic, 63
fi rst-order bright bar, 229
Fizeau, Armand (speed of
light experiment), 165
fl at mirror, 205–206
fluorine, 318Index 357
focal length
object between radius of
curvature and, 192
object closer to lens than,
192
object lens, 199–200
strength of lens, 189
thin-lens equation, 195
focal point
convex lens, 188
spherical mirror, 210
foot-pound-second (FPS)
system, 20
force
basic knowledge of, 30
conversion, 21
between electric
charges, 39
electric potential
energy, 10
F = ma equation, 30
of gravity, 30
MKS and CGS units, 21
repelling and attracting, 39
torque, 31
between two charges, 10
Foucault, Leon (speed of
light experiment), 165
FPS (foot-pound-second)
system, 20
fraction, conversion factor,
22–23
frames of reference,
250–251
frequency
alternating voltage, 88
basic description of, 12
beat, 147–148
calculator, 349
capacitive reactance, 93
fundamental, 145
overtone, 145
photo, 277
resonance, 109–110, 147
resonance frequency
calculator, 348
sound wave, 128
wave, 119
and wavelength of light,
163–164
fundamental frequency, 145
• G •
G (gauss), 66
gamma decay, 332–333
gamma particle, 329
gamma ray, 163, 332
gases
free atoms in, 298–299
speed of sound in,
134–136
gauss (G), 66
Geiger counter, 333–334
Geiger, Hans (Rutherford
scattering experiment),
296
general relativity, 252
Geological Survey of Canada
Web site, 64
Gerlach, Walther (angular
momentum experiment),
345
Germer, Lester (discovery of
matter waves), 343–344
glare, 187
glass, 178, 180–181
graph
standing wave, 144–145
wave, 121–122
gravity
force of, 30
general relativity, 252
ground state, 305
• H •
H (henries), 100
half-life
basic description of, 334
calculator, 351
carbon, 335
decay rate, 336–337
exponential decay
problem, 334
how much a sample left
using, 335–336
krypton, 335
polonium, 335
radioactivity, 17
radium, 334–335
radon, 335
strontium, 335
uranium, 335
Hall, David (muon
experiment), 346
harmonics, 145–147
Heisenberg, Werner
(uncertainty principle)
deriving the uncertainty
relation, 289–292
uncertainty in electron
diffraction, 288–289
uncertainty in position,
given speed, 293
uncertainty in speed,
292–293
helium
atomic mass unit, 330
electron configuration, 317
helium nuclei, 296
henries (H), 100
Hertz, Heinrich
photoelectric effect, 276–277
radio wave breakthrough,
160
hertz (Hz), 88, 119, 128
holographic image, 223
Holzner, Steven
Quantum Physics For
Dummies, 275
Huygens’s principle
(diffraction), 236
hydrogen
allowed energy for (Bohr
model of atom), 305
electron configuration, 317
index of refraction for, 178
wavelengths of services of,
299
hypotenuse, 25
Hz (hertz), 88, 119, 128
• I •
ice, 178
image
distorted, 211
interference in TV, 223
real, 188
virtual, 188–189, 193,
207, 212358 Physics II For Dummies
impedance
finding, 105–106
phasor diagram, 104
total potential difference, 105
in phase, 222–223
incident wave, 143
index of refraction
according to wavelength,
180–181
for air, 178
basic description of, 13
defined, 178
for diamond, 178
for glass, 178, 180–181
high to low, 233
for hydrogen, 178
for ice, 178
for liquid, 178
low to high, 233
of the medium, 179
for oxygen, 178
rainbow, separating
wavelength, 180–181
ratio of speed of light,
177–178
Snell’s law, 179–180
for water, 178
induction, 42–43
inductive reactance
calculator, 349
root-mean-square, 101
inductor
basic description of, 96
current lags voltage in, 102
Faraday’s law, 12, 96–100
root-mean-square
voltage, 101
voltage induced by, 99–100
inertial motion, 252
inertial reference frame,
251, 264
infrared light, 162
infrasonic, 128
insulator, 42–44
integrated circuit, 111
intensity
and decibels of common
sounds, 133
power fl owing through unit
area, 130
in terms of total power of
sound wave, 132
threshold of hearing, 133
interference
beat frequency, 147–148
coherent light source, 222
constructive, 141–142,
222–224, 228
destructive, 141, 143, 224,
226, 228
diffraction, 221
harmonics, 145–147
identical waves going in
opposite directions,
143–144
principle of superposition,
141, 223
resonance frequency, 147
single-slit diffraction,
235–241
standing wave, 143
street light interference
experiment, 238
thin-film, 231–235
wave, 125
interference pattern
coherent light sources,
226–227
defined, 125
double-slit arrangement,
227–231
of electron, 286
fringe, 229
interferometer, 272
inverse sine, cosine, and
tangent, 26
inverted pulse, 233
ionic bond, 315
isolated system, 38
isotope, 322
• J •
junction rule, 33
• K •
kilo- prefix, 23
kinetic energy
basic description of, 52
electron, 279–280
equation, 267–269
total energy of, 269–270
Kirchoff’s rule, 32–33
krypton half-life, 335
• L •
lagging current, 102–103,
106–108
law of reflection, 216
lead, 94
leading current, 94–95,
106–108
length
conversion, 21
MKS and CGS units, 21
vector, 28
length contraction
calculator, 350
equation, 261–262
proper length, 261–262
rest frame, 260
variable, 261
why and how length
contracts, 259–261
lens
center of curvature, 190
concave, 189, 193
converging, 188
convex, 188–189, 191
corrective, 200–201
diverging, 189
farsightedness, 200
focal length, 189, 192
focal point, 188
how light passes
through, 14
magnification, 199–203
magnifying glass, 193
microscope, 201–203
nearsightedness, 200
objective, 199–200
optical axis, 190
radius of curvature,
190, 192
ray diagram, 190–192
real image, 14
telescope, 199, 203
thin-lens equation,
14, 194–197, 217
virtual image, 14Index 359
light. See also speed of light
alternating electric field
(E field), 156–161
diffraction, 15
electromagnetic spectrum,
161–164
as electromagnetic wave,
155–161
energy density, 169–174
frequency and wavelength
of, 163–164
incoming side of lens, 195
index of refraction,
177–181
infrared, 162
interaction with matter, 13
lens, 14
light colliding with light, 15
magnetic field, 157–159
monochromatic, 276
outgoing side of lens, 195
partial reflection, 184–186
particle nature of, 282–285
polarized, 182, 184–186
ray, 13, 176–177
ray diagrams, drawing,
190–194, 212–216
reflected, 13
reflection, 182–186
refraction, 13–14
splitting, 227–231
ultraviolet, 162
visible, 162
light wave
basic description of, 12–13
electromagnetic
spectrum, 13
point source, 176
speed of light, 12–13
light wave interference.
See interference
lightning voltage, 53
light-year, 258
line object, 191
line source, 187
line spectra, 298–300
linear kinetic energy
circular motion, 32
conservation of, 329
linearly polarized wave, 157
liquid
index of refraction for, 178
speed of sound in, 136–137
lithium ion, 306
lithium, electron
configuration, 317
longitudinal wave
echo, 139
elastic medium, 117
loop antenna, 160
loop rule, 33
loudness, 12
luminiferous ether, 225
Lyman series of hydrogen, 299
• M •
magnesium, 318
magnetic angular
momentum, 312
magnetic energy density,
171–172
magnetic field
basic description of,
11, 65–66
charged particle in, 68–69
circular motion, 70–71
from current loop, 82–84
direction of, 62–63, 67–68,
75–76, 80, 157–159
E field, 157–159
from electric current, 79–83
Faraday’s law, 12
fi eld direction, 80–81
force on a current in, 75–76
light, 157–159
MKS system unit, 66
path of charge, 69–70
positive charge being
pushed in, 69–70
proportionality, 80
radius of orbit, 71–73
right-hand rule, 67–68,
75–76, 80, 159
solenoid, 84–86
from straight wire, 79–82
tesla unit, 66
wire and cable, 76
magnetic flux, 97–98
magnetic force
on a current in magnetic
field, 75–76
on electrical current, 74–78
magnitude of, 66–67
right-hand rule, 67–68
magnetic permeability of free
space, 168
magnetic quantum number,
311–312
magnetism
angle of declination, 64
bar magnet, 10, 62
basic description of, 11, 62
domain, 63
Earth’s poles, 64
electron loop, 62
ferromagnetic, 63
magnetic material, 62–63
magnetic pole, 63–65
Megnes (magnetism)
legend, 61
MKS and CGS units, 21
paramagnetic, 63
permanent magnet, 62–63
magnification
angular, 202–203
equation, 22, 197–199,
218–219
lens, 199–203
thin-lens equation,
194–197
magnifying glass, 193
magnitude
magnetic force, 66–67
vector, 28–29
Marconi, Guglielma
(physicist), 160
Marsden, Ernest (Rutherford
scattering experiment),
296
mass
conversion of units, 21
converting between mass
and energy, 265–266
E = mc², 16
MKS and CGS units, 21
mass defect, 327–328360 Physics II For Dummies
mass spectroscope, 73–74
matter
antimatter, 265
atom as building block of,
295
defi nition of, 273
matter wave
Davisson-Germer
experiment, 343–344
modern physics, 15
maxima of light, 241–242
Maxwell, James Clerk (speed
of light), 12–13, 155,
167–168
measurement
basic skill, 19
centimeter-gram-second
(CGS) system, 20–22
conversion, 20–24
electric charge, 38
foot-pound-second (FPS)
system, 20
meter-kilogram-second
(MKS) system, 20–22
scientifi c notation, 24
significant fi gures, 26–27
medium wave, 115, 117, 225
meter-kilogram-second
(MKS) system
converting between MKS
and CGS, 21–22
metric units of
measurement, 20
metric prefix, 23
mica, 59
Michelson, Albert (speed
of light experiment),
165–167, 225, 342
micro- prefix, 23
microchip, 111
microscope, 201–203
microwave, 162, 169
milli- prefix, 23
millivolt (mV), 99
mirror. See also reflection
angle of incidence, 206
angle of reflection, 206
concave, 212–215
convex, 215
curved, 14
equation, 216–219
fl at, 14, 205–206
magnification equation,
22, 218–219
mirror myth, left-right
flip, 207
partial, 206
plane, 206–207
refl ected light, 14
refl ection basics, 205–209
size, 208–210
spherical, 210–211, 216
thin-lens equation, 217
MKS (meter-kilogramsecond) system
converting between MKS
and CGS, 21–22
metric units of
measurement, 20
modern physics
blackbody radiation,
15, 274–275
nuclear physics, 17, 319–337
particle waves, 16–17,
285–288
quantum mechanics,
15, 309–318
radioactivity, 17, 328–337,
351
special relativity,
16, 249–272, 350
modulus, 136
mole, 135, 322
moment of inertia, 31
momentum
angular, 303–304, 345
electron, 283
inertial reference frame, 264
magnetic angular, 312
particle accelerator, 263
photon, 283
relativistic speed, 264
special relativity, 262–264
speed, 293
variable, 263
monochromatic light, 276
monofrequency sound, 130
Morley, Edward
(interferometer
experiment), 225
motion
inertial, 252
kinetic energy, 267–269
supersonic, 153
m/s (meters per second), 30
m/s2 (meters per second
squared), 30
multiple-slit diffraction,
241–243
multiplication and significant
figures, 27
muon (mu meson), 346
mV (millivolt), 99
• N •
nano- prefix, 23
nanometer (nm), 118, 164
N/C (newtons per
coulomb), 46
near point, 203
nearsightedness, 200
negative charge (–), 37
negative work, 53–54
neon electron configuration,
318
net charge, 38
neutral pion, 265
neutron
atomic mass number, 321
charge, 37
nucleus structure, 320
stabilizing power of, 326
neutron number, 321–323
Newton, Isaac
and modern physics, 15
newtons units of force, 30
newtons per coulomb
(N/C), 46
nitrogen electron
configuration, 317
nm (nanometer), 118, 164
node (wave), 145
noninertial reference frame,
251
normal mode, 145
n-type semiconductor,
111–112
nuclear fission, 17
nuclear fusion, 17Index 361
nuclear number, 329
nuclear physics, 17
nuclear reaction, 329, 346
nucleus
binding energy of, 327–328
density of, 323–324
discovery of, 297
neutron, 320
nuclear force, 324–328
proton, 320
radius and volume of, 323
Rutherford scattering
experiment, 296–297
strong nuclear force,
325–326
structure of, 320
• O •
object
charged, 47
curved surface, 188
kinetic energy of, 268
line, 191
point source, 187
as source of light ray, 187
offset wave, 123
Ohm’s law
for alternating voltage, 88–89
resistor measured in
ohms, 32
optical axis, 190
orbit, 301
orbital angular momentum
quantum number,
310–311
oscillating system, 110
out of phase, 94, 224
overtone, 145
oxygen
electron configuration, 318
index of refraction for, 178
• P •
Pa (pascals), 130
parallel plate capacitor
dielectric between, 58
electric fi eld between, 48–50
equipotential surfaces
between, 57
permittivity of free space, 49
paramagnetic, 63
partial mirror, 206
partial reflection, 184–186
particle
alpha, 296, 329
beta, 329
gamma, 329
particle nature of light,
282–285
wave nature of matter,
285–288
particle accelerator, 263
particle theory of photon, 279
pascals (Pa), 130
Paschen series of
hydrogen, 299
Pauli, Wolfgang (Pauli
exclusion principle),
314–316
peak voltage, 88
peak-to-trough, 222
perfect blackbody, 274
period
basic description of, 12
wave, 119
periodic disturbance, 12
permanent magnet, 62–63
permittivity of free space,
49, 168
phase angle, 123
phasor diagram, 104
phosphorous
dope silicon with, 111
electron configuration, 318
photocopier, as electric
charge example, 40
photoelectric effect
calculations with, 281–282
Einstein, 280, 343
experimental apparatus
measuring the, 276–277
photon
defined, 16
energy needed to pull
electron out of metal,
279–280
energy of, 277
frequency, 277
light frequency, 278
momentum, 283
particle theory of, 279
photon and electron
collision, 282–285
turning mass into light, 267
pitch of sound, 12, 128,
149–152
pitchblende, 344
plane mirror, 206–207
planetary model of atom
Bohr model of atom,
301–306
collapsing atoms, 297–298
fi nding the nucleus from
alpha particle, 296–297
line spectra, 298–300
plum pudding model,
296–297
point charge
electric potential energy,
54–55
force between charge
calculation, 44
point source, 176, 187
polarity, 157
polarization
basic description of, 184
sunglasses glare, 187
polarized light
basic description of, 182
partial reflection, 184–186
refl ecting at Brewster’s
angle, 185–186
polonium half-life, 335
positive charge (+), 37
positron, 266, 331
postulate, 252–253
potential energy, 270.
See also electric
potential energy
power
conversion, 22
intensity, 130
resolving power value,
243–246
power of ten, 23362 Physics II For Dummies
prefix, 23
pressure
fluctuation, 140
MKS and CGS units, 21
principal maxima (light), 242
principal quantum number,
310, 316
principle of superposition,
141, 223
proper length, 261–262
proper time interval, 255
proportionality, 80
proton
atomic mass number, 321
charge, 37
electric charge of, 38
nucleus structure, 320
repelling force between, 325
p-type semiconductor,
111–112
pulse
compression and
decompression, 117
rarefraction, 128
pure-tone sound, 130
Pythagorean theorem, 25
• Q •
quanta, 275
quantized system, 275
quantum mechanics, 15
quantum number
angular momentum,
310–311, 316
magnetic, 311–312
magnetic angular, 312
number of quantum state
configuration, 312–314
principal, 310, 316
spin, 312, 345
states, 311
Quantum Physics For
Dummies (Holzner), 275
• R •
radiation, blackbody
basic description of, 15–16
intensity versus
wavelength, 274
modern physics, 15
perfect blackbody, 274
Planck’s constant, 275
Rayleigh prediction, 274
radii, 303–304
radio development, 160
radio signal, 120
radio wave
basic description of, 159
electromagnetic spectrum,
162
electromagnetic wave, 158
loop antenna, 160
vertical antenna, 160
radioactivity
alpha decay, 330–331
alpha particle, 329
basic description of, 328
beta decay, 331–332
beta particle, 329
Curie discovery of, 344
decay rate, 336–337
gamma decay, 332–333
gamma particle, 329
half-life, 17, 333–335
modern physics, 17
nuclear reaction, 329
pitchblende, 344
types of, 17
radium
half-life, 334–335
radioactivity, 332
radius
of curvature, 190, 192, 210
and volume of nucleus, 323
radon half-life, 335
rainbow
color, 180–181
refl ection on, 184
rarefraction
pulse, 128
sound wave as vibration, 128
ray
line source, 187
object as source of, 187
point source, 176
representing a wave, 176
reversibility, 177
traveling in straight line,
177
ray diagram, 190–192
Rayleigh, Lord (blackbody
spectrum prediction),
274
real image, 14, 188
redshift, 258
reference frame, 250–251
reflected light
angle of incidence, 13
mirror, 14
refl ected wave, 143
reflection. See also mirror
angle of, 206
law of, 216
partial, 184–186
in rainbow, 184
total internal, 182–184
wave behavior, 124–125
refraction. See also index of
refraction
basic description of, 13–14
index of, 13, 177–181
wave behavior, 124
relativity calculator, 350. See
also special relativity
relativity postulate, 252
repelling and attracting
forces, 39
resistance
basic description of, 88
rules of resistance, 32
resistor
basic description of, 87–88
connecting alternating
voltage source to, 90–91Index 363
ideal, 88
in phase, 91
resistor measured in
ohms, 32
voltage and current
alternating in, 91
resolving power, 243–246
resonance frequency
amplitude of vibration, 147
calculator, 348
capacitor and inductor
effects, 109
oscillating system, 110
rest energy
changing mass to energy/
energy to mass, 266
equation, 266
neutral pion, 265
positron, 266
turning mass into light, 267
rest frame, 260
right triangle, 25–26
right-hand rule, 67–68, 75–76,
80–81, 159
RLC circuit
basic description of, 103
determining amount of
leading or lagging,
106–108
fi nding maximum current
in, 109–110
impedance, 104–106
Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad
(discovery of X-ray), 344
root-mean-square
alternating voltage, 89–90
current, 107–108
energy density, 172
inductive reactance, 101
Rossi, Bruno (muon
experiment), 346
rules of resistance, 32
Rutherford, Ernest
discovery of atom’s
nucleus, 345
scattering, 296–297
Rydberg constant, 299,
306–307
• S •
scattering (Rutherford), 296
scientifi c notation, 24
second-order bright bar
(light), 229
semiconductor
basic description of,
110–111
integrated circuit, 111
microchip, 111
n-type, 111–112
p-type, 111–112
series RLC circuit
basic description of, 103
determining amount of
leading or lagging,
106–108
fi nding maximum current
in, 109–110
impedance, 104–106
shock wave, 152–154
silicon
doped (semiconductor), 111
electron configuration, 318
sine wave, 26, 121–122
single-slit diffraction
diffraction calculation,
240–241
diffraction pattern,
237–240
for electrons, 290
Huygens’s principle, 236–237
interference, 235–236
SLAC (Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center), 263
slowing time
blueshift, 258
equation, 257–260
light clock example, 254–255
proper time interval, 255
redshift, 258
shifting light frequency, 258
slow speed, 256
time measured by two
observers, 255
variable, 256
Snell’s law, index of
refraction, 179–180
sodium, 318
solar system, 297
solenoid
basic description of, 11
electromagnet, 79
magnetic field, 84–86
solid, speed of sound in,
137–138
sonar, 140
sonic boom, 152–153
sonogram, 140
sound
constant tone, 129
decibels, 132–133
echolocation, 140
infrasonic, 128
intensity, 130
monofrequency, 130
pure-tone, 130
speed of, 133–138
ultrasonic, 128
volume, 129
sound barrier, 153
sound wave
amplitude, 128–129
basic description of, 12
diffraction, 148–149
Doppler effect, 12, 149–152
echo, 12, 139–141
frequency, 128
human ear example, 128
intensity, 131–133
interference, 141–148
loudness, 12
measuring sound pressure
in, 130–131
music example, 128
node, 145
pitch, 12
as vibration, 127–129
special relativity
basics of, 250–253
coordinate system,
250–251
Einstein, 16, 249, 346
event, 250, 253
general relativity, 252
imaginative discussion, 249
inertial motion, 252364 Physics II For Dummies
special relativity (continued)
inertial reference frame, 251
length contraction, 259–262
modern physics, 16
momentum, 262–264
reference frame, 250–251
relativity postulate, 252
speed of light postulate,
252–253
time dilation, 254–259
velocity, 270–273
spectroscope, 73–74
speed
electron, 292–293
transverse wave, 120–121
velocity and acceleration,
29–30
wave, 120
speed of light
distance around the
world, 164
failed experiment of, 164
Fizeau and Foucault
experiment, 165
length contraction
calculator, 350
Maxwell calculations,
12–13, 155, 167–168
Michelson experiment,
165–167, 225, 342
speed of light postulate,
252–253
speed of sound
described, 133
in gases, 134–136
in liquids, 136–137
resistance to deformation,
136
in solids, 137–138
stats, 134
sphere, 132
spherical mirror
Archimedes’s burning
mirrors, 211
center or curvature, 210
distorted image, 211
focal point, 210
law of reflection, 216
mirror equation, 216–219
radius of curvature, 210
uses for, 211
spin quantum number,
312, 345
splitting light, 227–231
standing wave
destructive interference,
143–145
graph, 144–145
incident wave, 143
normal mode, 145–146
refl ected wave, 143
Stanford Linear Accelerator
Center (SLAC), 263
state, quantum number, 311
static change, 10
static electricity, 40–41
Stern, Otto (angular
momentum experiment),
345
strong nuclear force, 325–326
strontium half-life, 335
subtraction, 27
sulfur, electron
configuration, 318
sunglasses glare, 187
superposition principle, 141
supersonic motion, 153
symbol, element, 321
• T •
T (tesla), 66
tangent, 26
tangential direction, 30
technological
advancement, 15
telescope, 199, 203
temperature conversion, 24
tesla (T), 66
thin-film interference
accounting for changes in
wave phase, 233
calculation, 233–235
sending light ray on
different path, 231–232
thin-lens equation
calculation, 196
description of, 195
focal length, 195
image distance, 195
object distance, 195
real image, 14
virtual image, 14
Thomson, J.J. (electron
discovery), 296
thorium
atomic mass unit, 330
radioactivity, 331
time dilation
blueshift, 258
Einstein, 1
equation, 257–260
light clock example,
254–255
proper time interval, 255
redshift, 258
shifting light frequency, 258
slow speed, 256
time measured by two
observers, 255
variable, 256
torque
electric motor, 78
moment of inertia, 31
turning force, 77
total energy
conversation of, 329
kinetic energy, 267, 269
potential energy, 270
total internal reflection,
182–184
total potential difference, 105
transverse wave
direction of travel of, 116
speed, 120–121
trigonometry, 25–26
TV signal, 223
• U •
ultrasonic sound, 128
ultraviolet light, 162
uncertainty principle
(Heisenberg)
deriving the uncertainty
relation, 289–292Index 365
uncertainty in electron
diffraction, 288–289
uncertainty in position,
given speed, 293
uncertainty in speed,
292–293
uniform electric field, 48–50
United States Geological
Survey Web site, 64
uranium
atomic mass unit, 330
half-life, 335
radioactivity, 330
• V •
valence electron, 44, 315
variable, 2
vector
addition, 29, 347
basic knowledge of, 28–29
length, 28
magnitude, 28–29
resolving into components,
28–29
vector addition calculator, 347
velocity
angular, 31
basic knowledge of, 29–30
change in direction, 30
defi nition of, 29
special relativity, 270–273
speed, 29–30
vertical antenna, 160
vibration
amplitude, 147
sound wave as, 127–129
virtual image
basic description of, 14
concave lens, 189, 193
concave mirror, 212
convex lens, 188
plane mirror, 207
visible light, 162
vision, 200
voltage. See also alternating
voltage; electrical
potential energy
basic description of, 10
current leads the, 94
defined, 52
loop rule, 33
peak, 88
root-mean-square, 89–90,
101, 107
sum of voltage around a
loop, 33
volume
and radius of nucleus, 323
sound, 129
• W •
water, 178
wave. See also light
wave; matter wave;
sound wave
amplitude, 118–119
bulk movement, 116
cycle, 119
defined, 12
frequency, 119
graphing, 121–122
incident, 143
interference pattern, 125
linearly polarized, 157
longitudinal, 117, 139
medium, 115
modern physics, 16–17
offset, 123
out of phase, 224
peak-to-trough, 118, 222
period, 119
periodic disturbance, 12
in phase, 222–223
properties of, 117–121
ray representing a, 176
reflected, 143
reflection, 124–125
refraction, 124
shock, 152–154
sine, 121–122
speed, 120
standing, 143–145
as transference of energy,
116
transverse, 116, 120–121
as traveling disturbance,
115–116
wavelength
basic description of, 12
calculation, 120
calculator, 349
Compton (photons),
284–285
de Broglie (matter), 285–288
frequency and wavelength
of light, 163–164
index of refraction
according to, 180–181
one-half, 228
peak, 118
trough, 118
Wb (weber), 99
wire loop, 97–98
work, 53–54
work function (WF), 280
• X •
x-axis, 25
xerography, 39
X-ray
electromagnetic wave, 163
Röntgen discovery of, 344
• Y •
y-axis, 25
Young, Thomas
double-slit experiment,
227–231
“Experiments and
Calculations Relative to
Physical Optics” paper,
342
Young’s modulus, 137–138
• Z •
zero oscillation, 139
zeroth-order bright bar
(light), 229366 Physics II For DummiesAvailable wherever books are sold. For more information or to order direct: U.S. customers visit www.dummies.com or call 1-877-762-2974.
U
Business/Accounting
& Bookkeeping
Bookkeeping For Dummies
978-0-7645-9848-7
eBay Business
All-in-One For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-38536-4
Job Interviews
For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-470-17748-8
Resumes For Dummies,
5th Edition
978-0-470-08037-5
Stock Investing
For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-470-40114-9
Successful Time
Management
For Dummies
978-0-470-29034-7
Computer Hardware
BlackBerry For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-470-45762-7
Computers For Seniors
For Dummies
978-0-470-24055-7
iPhone For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-42342-4
Laptops For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-470-27759-1
Macs For Dummies,
10th Edition
978-0-470-27817-8
Cooking & Entertaining
Cooking Basics
For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-7645-7206-7
Wine For Dummies,
4th Edition
978-0-470-04579-4
Diet & Nutrition
Dieting For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-7645-4149-0
Nutrition For Dummies,
4th Edition
978-0-471-79868-2
Weight Training
For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-471-76845-6
Digital Photography
Digital Photography
For Dummies,
6th Edition
978-0-470-25074-7
Photoshop Elements 7
For Dummies
978-0-470-39700-8
Gardening
Gardening Basics
For Dummies
978-0-470-03749-2
Organic Gardening
For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-43067-5
Green/Sustainable
Green Building
& Remodeling
For Dummies
978-0-470-17559-0
Green Cleaning
For Dummies
978-0-470-39106-8
Green IT For Dummies
978-0-470-38688-0
Health
Diabetes For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-470-27086-8
Food Allergies
For Dummies
978-0-470-09584-3
Living Gluten-Free
For Dummies
978-0-471-77383-2
Hobbies/General
Chess For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-7645-8404-6
Drawing For Dummies
978-0-7645-5476-6
Knitting For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-28747-7
Organizing For Dummies
978-0-7645-5300-4
SuDoku For Dummies
978-0-470-01892-7
Home Improvement
Energy Efficient Homes
For Dummies
978-0-470-37602-7
Home Theater
For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-470-41189-6
Living the Country Lifestyle
All-in-One For Dummies
978-0-470-43061-3
Solar Power Your Home
For Dummies
978-0-470-17569-9Internet
Blogging For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-23017-6
eBay For Dummies,
6th Edition
978-0-470-49741-8
Facebook For Dummies
978-0-470-26273-3
Google Blogger
For Dummies
978-0-470-40742-4
Web Marketing
For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-37181-7
WordPress For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-40296-2
Language & Foreign
Language
French For Dummies
978-0-7645-5193-2
Italian Phrases
For Dummies
978-0-7645-7203-6
Spanish For Dummies
978-0-7645-5194-9
Spanish For Dummies,
Audio Set
978-0-470-09585-0
Macintosh
Mac OS X Snow Leopard
For Dummies
978-0-470-43543-4
Math & Science
Algebra I For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-55964-2
Biology For Dummies
978-0-7645-5326-4
Calculus For Dummies
978-0-7645-2498-1
Chemistry For Dummies
978-0-7645-5430-8
Microsoft Office
Excel 2007 For Dummies
978-0-470-03737-9
Office 2007 All-in-One
Desk Reference
For Dummies
978-0-471-78279-7
Music
Guitar For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-7645-9904-0
iPod & iTunes
For Dummies,
6th Edition
978-0-470-39062-7
Piano Exercises
For Dummies
978-0-470-38765-8
Parenting & Education
Parenting For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-7645-5418-6
Type 1 Diabetes
For Dummies
978-0-470-17811-9
Pets
Cats For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-7645-5275-5
Dog Training For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-7645-8418-3
Puppies For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-470-03717-1
Religion & Inspiration
The Bible For Dummies
978-0-7645-5296-0
Catholicism For Dummies
978-0-7645-5391-2
Women in the Bible
For Dummies
978-0-7645-8475-6
Self-Help & Relationship
Anger Management
For Dummies
978-0-470-03715-7
Overcoming Anxiety
For Dummies
978-0-7645-5447-6
Sports
Baseball For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-7645-7537-2
Basketball For Dummies,
2nd Edition
978-0-7645-5248-9
Golf For Dummies,
3rd Edition
978-0-471-76871-5
Web Development
Web Design All-in-One
For Dummies
978-0-470-41796-6
Windows Vista
Windows Vista
For Dummies
978-0-471-75421-3
Holzner
كلمة سر فك الضغط : books-world.net
The Unzip Password : books-world.net