Fundamentals of Robot Technology – An Introduction to Industrial Robots

Fundamentals of Robot Technology – An Introduction to Industrial Robots
D J Todd
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
Definitions of ‘robot’ and ‘robotics’ 10
Other definitions in robotics 10
Connections between robotics and some related subjects 11
Artificial intelligence 11
Flexible manufacturing systems, factory automation, computer-aided
manufacturing 12
Bibliographic notes 12
Chapter 2: Geometric configurations for robots
Introduction 15
The distinction between arms and vehicles 15
Structural elements of manipulators 16
Degrees of freedom and number of joints 16
Types of joint 17
Construction of joints 18
Parallel linkages 18
Constrained linkages 20
Distributed manipulators 20
Robot transporters and workpiece positioners 20
Arm configuations 21
Cartesian 21
Polar 24
Cylindrical 24
Horizontally jointed arms 24
Vertically jointed or anthropomorphic arms 24
Other arm designs 24
Tension structures 27
Wrists 27
Direct drive to each axis 29
Gear drives 30
Compliance in wrists 32
End effectors (grippers, tools and hands) 33
Two-jaw grippers 34
Special purpose mechanical grippers 35
Vaccum and magnetic grippers 37
Tools 38
Tool and gripper changing 38
Anthropomorphic and other adaptive hands 39
Two dimensional adaptive grippers 40
Anthropomorphic hands 40
Bibliographic notes 42
Chapter 3: Operation, programming and control of industrial robots
Types of industrial robot and their methods of operation 43
Pick and place manipulators 44
Point to point robots 45
Continuous path robots 45
Methods of teaching and programming 45
Programming pick and place robots 46
9
15
43Walk-through teaching or pendant teaching 46
Walk-through teaching with path control 47
Lead-through teaching or physical arm leading 48
Off-line programming 48
The implications of sensing for robot control 48
Types of controller and program memory 49
Analysis and control 49
Formulating the kinemati<,: equations 50
Solving the kinematic equations 51
The Jacobian formulation 52
The ‘forward’ and ‘inverse’ problems of dynamics 52
Specifying trajectories 52
Servo control of actuators 54
Programming languages for industrial robots 56
Bibliographic notes 57
Chapter 4_- Actuators for robots
Pneumatic actuation 60
Pneumatic valves 62
Hydraulic actuation 63
Hydraulic valves 64
Hydrostatic circuits 65
Hydraulic pumps and associated equipment 65
Electric actuation 69
Direct current servomotors 69
Alternating current servomotors (brushless direct current
servomotors) 71
Stepper motors 72
Other electromechanical actuators 73
Mechanical transmission methods 75
Inertia reduction 75
Speed reduction 76
RotaryIrectilinear motion conversion 80
Differentials and parallelogram linkages 80
Bibliographic notes 81
Chapter 5.’ Sensing for robots
Joint angle 84
Potentiometers 85
Resolvers and synchros 85
Incremental and absolute encoders (usually optical) 86
J oint angular velocity 87
Rectilinear position 87
Force and torque 88
Strain gauges 88
Piezoelectric force transducers 89
Proximity sensing and range measurement 90
Touch sensing 93
Resistance-based touch sensors 94
Inductance and capacitance 94
Piezoelectric transducers 95
Thermal touch sensing 96
Optical methods of touch sensing 96
Slip 96
Vision 97
Vision hardware 98
Television cameras 98
Illuminator 100
Framestore 100
Preprocessor 101
General purpose computer 101
Types of computer vision 101
Two-dimensional vision with isolated objects and a binary image 102
Stasticial pattern recognition 102
Two-dimensional vision with isolated objects and a grey scale
image 103
59
83Touching or overlapping objects 104
Two-dimensional inspection 105
Two-dimensional line tracking 105
Three-dimensional vision: isolated objects 105
Single image (monocular vision) 106
Stereo vision 106
Structured illumination 106
Range imaging 107
Three-dimensional vision applied to a heap of parts 107
Three-dimensional scene analysis for mobile robots 107
Non-visual sensing in welding and other processes 107
Bibliographic notes 108
Chapter 6: Performance specifications of industrial robots
Geometric configuration; number of axes 110
Positioning accuracy and repeatability 110
Accuracy 110
Repeatability 111
Test methods for accuracy and repeatability 112
Angular accuracy and repeatability 112
Speed 113
Speed and acceleration accuracy 113
Spatial specifications: working volume, swept area, reach 113
Payload (maximum load capacity) 114
Control-related specifications 115
Memory capacity 115
Program structure 115
Advanced features 115
Vibration 116
Miscellaneous specifications 116
Bibliographic notes 116
Chapter 7: Applications of industrial robots
Machine loading 118
Pallet loading and unloading 120
Investment casting 121
Spot welding 122
Arc welding 123
Spraying (paint, enamel, epoxy resin and other coatings) 126
Fettling (grinding, chiselling); polishing 126
Cutting 127
Inspection 127
Training and education; hobby robots 127
Robots in assembly 130
Typ.:s of robot for assembly 131
Grippers 133
Compliance 136
Design for assembly 136
Part’numbers and types 136
Component design for mechanical handling 137
Design of the assembly process 138
New applications for industrial robots 139
Extension of existing methods to new applications 139
More sensing 140
Artificial intelligence 140
Handling difficult workpieces 140
Integration of industrial robots into the workplace 145
Tracking 145
Work cell configurations 146
Transport of components and assemblies 146
Feeders for assembly robots 147
Control and communication 148
Bibliographic notes 149
109
117Chapter 8: Teleoperated arms
Introduction 151
Methods of contro1151
Mechanical master-slave telemanipulators 151
Powered telemanipulators 152
Servo control of unilateral telemanipulators 152
Bilateral servo manipulators 155
Special characteristics of teleoperators 158
Design criteria for teleoperators 159
Vehicles and transporters 160
Applications of teleoperators 161
Remote handling of radioactive materials 161
Remote handling of explosive and toxic materials 161
Telemanipulation of heavy objects 163
Underwater teleoperation 163
Teleoperation in space and planetary exploration 164
Telemanipulators for the disabled 164
Computer assisted teleoperation 166
Bibliographic notes 170
Chapter 9: Mobile robots
Introduction 171
Land surface robots 171
Arrangements of wheels and tracks 171
Unusual wheel and track arrangements 172
Navigation for land vehicles 174
Teleoperation 174
Dead reckoning 175
Inertial navigation 175
Tracking from a fixed base; beacons 175
Satellite navigation 175
Map matching 175
Wall following 176
Route planning 176
Control and communication 176
Sensors for mobile robots 177
Body orientation and angular rates 177
Body position, speed and acceleration 177
Terrain scanning 178
Types and applications of mobile robots 179
Education and research 179
Remote handling 183
Military mobile robots 183
Fire-fighting and rescue 187
Construction 188
Mining 188
Planetary exploration 188
Legged robots 188
Comparison of legs and wheels 189
Leg number and arrangement 189
Leg number 189
Leg disposition 190
Relative leg length 190
Leg construction 190
Control 191
Climbing robots 195
Robot submersibles 196
Uses of submersible robots 199
Robots in air and space 201
Space 202
Bibliographic notes 204
Chapter 10: Automated guided vehicles
Automated guided vehicle technology 207
Power, steering and guidance 207
151
171
205Route programming 208
Route planning 210
Loading and unloading 210
Safety; vehicle separation 211
Miscellaneous features 211
Automated guided vehicles with mechanical and optical guidance 211
Free ranging automated guided vehicles 212
Bibliographic notes 213
Chapter 11: Robotics and artificial intelligence
Vision 215
Voice communication 216
Planning 21 7
Discrete step planning 218
Route planning 218
Modelling 221
Adaptive control 222
Error monitoring and recovery 222
Autonomy and intelligence in robots 223
Expert systems in robotics 225
Bibliographic notes 226
Chapter 12: Economic and social aspects of robotics
Reasons for installing robots 227
Economic costs and benefits of installing industrial robots 228
Safety benefits of using robots 229
Prevention of mechanical damage 229
Avoidance of robot-generated fires and pollution 229
Protection of robots from adverse environments 229
Acceptability of industrial robots by the workforce 230
Employment 231
Other social issues of robotics 231
Social issues 231
Military robotics 232
Police and security uses of mobile robots 232
Teleoperators 232
Medical uses of robots 233
Bibliographic notes 233
References and Bibliography
Index
Index
Aberystwyth 223
accumulator, hydraulic 68
accuracy 110-113
actuator 54, 59-81
adaptive control 222
adaptive hands 39
Adaptive Suspension Vehicle 179, 186
AERE see Harwell
AFFIRM 223
AGV see automated guided vehicle
AI see artificial intelligence
aircraft 201
analysis 49
android 11
Andromat 163
anthropomorphic 24, 39
APT 57
Aquila 201
arc welding 123
Arm see also manipulator
geometry 21-26
flexible 25
artificial intelligence 11, 215-226
ASEA 132, 134
assembly 130-139
ASV see Adaptive Suspension Vehicle
Australian Wool Corporation 142
automated guided vehicle 205-213
free-ranging 212
guidance 207-209, 211
types of 205
autonomy 223
Babcock FATA Ltd 206
ball screw 79
BBC Buggy 180
Berkeley 182
Biper 194
blundering 221
CAD see computer-aided design
CAE see computer-aided engineering
CAM see computer-aided manufacturing
Carnegie-Mellon University 194, 216
Cartesian 21-23
CIM see computer integrated
manufacturing
Cincinnati Milacron 29, 33; 119, 124,
127, 129
cloth handling 142
CMU see Carnegie-Mellon University
communications 148, 176
compliance 32, 34, 136
computer 49,101
computer-aided design 12
computer-aided engineering 12
computer-aided manufacturing 12
computer-integrated manufacturing 12
continuous path 45
control 49, 54, 152-159, 176, 191,222
controller 49 ‘
coordinates 51, 109
CURV 201
cutting 127
Cyber Robotics 131
cyborg 11
cycloidal speed reducer 79
cylinder 60
cylindrical 24
DARPA: Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency 186
degeneracy 28
degrees of freedom 16
dextrous hand 40
die casting 118
differential 30, 80
disabled 164
distributed manipulator 20
Dragonfly 197
Duplus 197
dynamics
forward planning 52
inverse problem of 52
dynamic stability 194
Economatics Ltd 180
economics 227-233
241Fl ?\’DAMENTALS OF ROROT TECH!VOLOCY
education 127
electric actuation 69
electric motor 69
alternating current 71
brushless 7 1
DC servomotor 69
direct current 69
permanent magnet 69
stepper 72
employment 231
encoder 86
end effector 33
Engelberger 117
environment 229
epicyclic gear 78
error monitoring and recovery 222
ESAB 21
expert systems 223, 225
factory automation 12
Fairey Automation 23, 44,147
feeders 147
fettling 126
fire fighting 18 7
flexible manufacturing systems 12, 147
flexible workpieces 140
framestore 100
Gadfly 19
gait 192
gantry 23
GEC see General Electric Company
(UK)
General Electric (US) 163,192
General Electric Company (UK) 19
gripper see also end effector, hand
adaptive 39
for assembly 133
special purpose 35
two jaw 34
vacuum and magnetic 37
grinding 126
hand 40
harmonic drive 79
Harpy 217
Harwell 153, 184
Hawk 197
HEARSAY 217
Heriot-Watt University 197
HILARE 182
Hitachi 171
horizontally jointed 24
Hull, University of 141
242
hydraulic 63-68
hydrostatic 65
IBM 132, 134, 135
industrial robot see robot, industrial
intelligence 223
International Standards Organization
109
interpolation 53
investment casting 121
ISO see International Standards
Organization
Jacobian 52
JASON 182
Jet Propulsion Laboratory 173
JPL see Jet Propulsion Laboratory
joint, types of 17
construction of 18
coordinates 50
notation for 17
kinematic equations 50
knowledge-based systems 223, 225
Komatsu 188
KUKA 23,25,36,39,78 121,124,128
130
Lamberton Robotics 163
language, programming 56-57
leadscrew 80
lead through 47
legged robots 188-196
linear variable differential transformer
88
linescan camera 99
line tracking 105
linkages 18-20, 80
loading, machine 118
Lockheed 201
Lunokhod 188
LVDT see linear variable differential
transformer
Machine Tool Industry Research
Association 110
manipulator see also arm
definition of 10
distributed 20
workpiece positioner 21
Mantis 197
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
40,57
master-slave 151
memory 49Merino Wool Harvesting Pty Ltd 142
MHI 57
military robots 183, 232
MIT see Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Mitsubishi 195
model-based vision 104
modelling 221
MTIRA see Machine Tool Industry
Research Association
NASA 167
navigation 174
Norson Power Ltd 166
notation for joints 17
Odometry 175
off-line programming 48
Ohio State University 186
ORACLE 142
OSEL Offshore Systems Engineering
Ltd 197-200
OSU see Ohio State University
pallet loading 120
parallel linkage or robot 19
path 52
payback period 228
payload 114
pendant 46
performance 109-116
pick and place 44
piezoelectric 73, 89, 95
planetary exploration 164
planning 21 7
PLC see programmable logic controller
pneumatic 41, 52-63
point to point 45
polar 24
polyvinylidene fluoride 95
positioner 21
potentiometer 85
Pragma 132
prismatic 17
programmable logic controller 148
programming 45-48
programming language 56-57
proximity 90
Puma 57,132
PVDF see polyvinylidene fluoride
Queen Mary College 169, 182
ram 60
range finding 90, 178
INDEX
RAPT 57,222
RARDE see Royal Armament Research
and Development Establishment
RCC see remote centre compliance
ReCUS 188
rectilinear 17, 87
remote centre compliance 34
remote handling 161, 183
remotely operated vehicle 197
remotely piloted vehicle 201
repeatability 111
resolved motions 169
resolver 85
revolute 17, 24
Rigworker 197
robots
definitions of 9, 10
industrial 10, 43
legged 188-196
mobile 171-204
underwater 196-201
rodless cylinder 61
rotary actuator 62
route planning 176, 218
ROV see remotely operated vehicle
Royal Armament Research and
Development Establishment 179,
186
RPV see remotely piloted vehicle
safety 211,229
SCARA 24, 132
sceptrology 11
Scobotman 163
sensing 48, 83-108
sensor
body orientation and angular rates
177
body position, speed and acceleration
177
force and torque 88
joint angle 84
joint angular velocity 84
proximity and range 90
rectilinear position 87
terrain scanning 178
touch 93
vision 97-107
welding 107
Shakey 179
shape memory effect 74
servo control 54, 152-159
servomotor 69, 71
SM 142
SME see shape memory effect 142
243FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT TECHNOLOGY
so cial issues 231
space 164,201
specifications 109-116
Spine robot 25,125
spool valve 63, 64
spot welding 122
SRI International 179
standards 109
Stanford Research Institute see SRI
International
Stanford University 72
strain gauge 88
STRIPS 180
structured illumination 101
submersibles 163, 196-201
synchro 85
Taylor Hitec Ltd 162
teaching 45, 48
telechir 11
telemanipulator 151-170
bilateral 155
control of 151-158
definition of 11
mechanical master-slave 151
open loop 152
powered 152
teleoperation 151-170 (see also
telemanipulator)
definition of 11
tension structures 27
terrain scanning 178
Texas Instruments 148
Tokyo University 194
tools 38
torque constant 70
tracking 145
tracks (caterpillar) 1 71
training 12 ‘7
trajectory 52
transducer 83
244
transmission 75
transporter 20, 160
UFO 197
ultrasonics 91
underwater robotics 163-166
Unimate 24
Unimation 57,132
Universal Machine Intelligence Ltd 168
Universite Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, 182
Utah, University of 40
VAL 57
valve 61-64
variable displacement pump 66, 67
vehicle 15, 160,205-213
vertically jointed 24
vibration 116
Viking 167
vision 97-107, 215
voice communications 216
Wabot 194
Wales, University College 223
walk-through 46
Waseda University 194
WAVE 57
welding 107, 122-124
Western Australia, University of 142
wheels 171, 189
WLlOR 194
workplace coordinates 144
world coordinates 50
wrist
compliant 32
direct drive 29
gear drive 30
geometry 28
requirements 28
three axis 31. 33
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